Home / 2.2: The Nature of Society

2.2: The Nature of Society

Concept of Society

Introduction : In sociology & anthropology, refers not just to a group of people but to a complex pattern of norms of interaction that arises among them. Thus It is largest distinguishable unit of interacting individual who share a pattern of social organisation that regulates interaction b/w them. 

Definition of society – given by various scholar ; some are as follow

  • Mclver defined it as, “ Web of social relationships .”
  • Ginsberg: Society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of behaviour which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behaviour.
  • Parsons: Society may be defined as the total complex of human relationships in so far as they grow out of action in terms of mean- end relationship, intrinsic or symbolic.

Thus there are two types of definition of society, the functional definition and structural definition.

  • From the functional point of view, society is defined as a complex of groups in reciprocal relationships interacting up on one another, enabling human organisms to carry out their life activities and helping each other to fulfil their wishes.
  • From the structural point of view, society is total social heritage of folkways, mores, institutions, habits, sentiments and ideals.
  • Ginsberg, Gidding, Cole, Cuber etc. take a structural view of society while McIver, Parsons, Lapiere, Leacock etc. have given functional definition of society.

The society is to be interpreted in a wider sense. It is both a structural and functional organisation. It is a pattern, system and not the people those who define it as a group of people.

Characteristics of society

  • web of social relationships: the family -have as many as 15 relationships based on age, sex and generation.
  • means likeness, the sense of likeness was focused in early society on kinship.
  • Also implies difference : as this sense of likeness does not include diversity or variations. Society which is based exclusively on likeness and uniformity is bound to lose in socialites.
    • For ex family rests upon biological differences b/w sexes. Besides the differences in sex, there are other natural differences of aptitude, interest, capacity. But the difference is subordinate to likeness.
  • Interdependence: essential elements.  Family, the first society, which we all are closely associated with, is based on the biological interdependence of the sexes. None of the two sexes is complete by itself and therefore each seeks fulfilment by the aid of another.
  • Cooperation : also essential to constitutes. Without corporation no society can exist. Unless people co-operate with each other they cannot live a happy life.

Nature of society

This qus is closely connected with qus of r/l of man & society. There are mainly two theories of relationship of man and society

  1. The social contract theory (Hobbes, Locke)
    • It views society as an entity deliberately set up by man for certain ends. Acc to this theory, all men were born for certain ends and were born free and equal. Individual precedes society. Individuals have made a mutual agreement and created society.
    • Acc to Hobbes, man is in a perpetual conflict with his neighbours on a/c of his essentially selfish attitude. To protect himself against the evil consequences, man organised himself in the society in order to live in peace with all.
    • Acc to Locke, believed that state of nature was not state of war. It was state of peace, good will mutual assistance & preservation. But only disadvantage – no recognised law & justice→ to make good this deficiency & ensure the existence of his liberty → contract
    • Acc to Rousseau – equal self sufficient, contented → growth in no. → quarrels → necessitated the est of civil society.
  2. Organic theory (Proponents: Plato,Aristotle, Herbert Spencer)
    • Acc to this theory, there is resemblance b/w individual & society in terms of starting as small aggregate, growth from simplicity to complexity and mutual dependence.
    • Thus Spencer concluded that society is organism, it is a social organism. The individuals are limbs of society that behave as the cells of the body whose activity and life is meant for the sake of whole. Individuals without society have no value as limbs without body have no value.
    • But there are also differences b/w society and an organism as units of Society are not fixed, there is no form like body of individuals in society, society has no common sensorium etc.

As these theories doesn’t explain clearly the relationship b/w man and society, anthropologists came to following conclusion about true r/l b/w man and society:

  • Man is social by nature: Man’s nature is such that he cannot afford to live alone.
  • Necessity makes man social: Many of man’s needs may remain unfulfilled if he does not have cooperation with his fellow beings in society.
  • Society determines personality of individual by transmission of culture.

Conclusion: Thus though there are differences about nature of society, there is consensus to  about necessity of society for existence of human being as human being is a social animal. In words of Mclver, “No ones can really be an absolute individualist, any more than anyone can be an absolute socialist. For the individual & society interact on one another & depend on one another.” Both are complementary & supplementary to each other.

Society & Culture

Concept of culture : Culture is defined as sum total of all group habits developed by a person as a member of the group. E. B. Tylor defines it as knowledge, belief, art, morals, customs etc. acquired by man as a member of society.

Concept of society: Society is an association of individuals. It is a permanent population of people acting in accordance with its culture. It organises the activities of people and the establishment of standardised behaviour is social imperative.

Society and culture : There are different views among anthropologists about relationship b/w society and culture.

  • Culture as all-embracing including society. (Malinowski)
    • Acc to this view culture is wider concept than society & it includes social org of social structure of people.
    • Also this view says that culture comes before existence of society.
  • Society and culture are two different things. (Radcliffe Brown, Evans Pritchard, Edmond Leach and most of the British anthropologists.)
    • Acc to them, society concerns with social, interpersonal & intergroup r/l while culture is an overall design and prescription for a great variety of human behaviour.
    • While elements of sociability can be traced to sub human species, culture is exclusively human prerogative.
    • Hoebal put forward the distinction in more clear-cut manner by describing society as people and culture as ways of acting. Acc him, we may say that one belongs to society but not to culture.
  • Culture is based in society : as edifice of culture has base in society and human living.
    • We cannot imagine the emergence of culture without a basis of human life.
    • Here Levi-Strauss says that society existed prior to culture while Krober puts that society do exist without culture but culture doesn’t exist without society.
    • Acc to modern view, Evolution of society played, important role in human survival & for running the society, certain, rules, norms & traditions are developed specific to certain environment → evolution of culture.
  • Society & Culture as interrelated and inseparable. – Civilisationist used the terms as synonyms
  • culture & society are two aspects of social realities viewed from different dimensions i. e. culture is action and behaviour while society is relationship and grouping. E.g. Levi-Strauss.
    • Acc to this view culture and society are interwoven and interdependent  concepts which can’t exist without each other.

Some examples (in support of Society → culture) : Every society has its specific, material & Non material aspect eg.

  • Simple agrarian society is based upon agriculture, festivals, fairs , customs are often related with harvesting season like Baisakhi in Punjab, Bihu in Assam etc
  • Nuer – Patrilineal society → presence of rites of male line necessary → evolution of Ghost & women – women m’age.

Thus to conclude we can say that culture & society are two complimentary ways of looking at same reality each illuminating different aspect.

Social Institutions

Introduction:  A social institution is an organised forms of customs ,dogmas, rituals, procedures & relations – organised around the preservation of a basic societal value. Each social institution depends on certain established rules and usages which are recognised & accepted by the members of the society. These rules and regulations govern the relations b/w individuals and groups.

Definition of social institution

  • Ginsberg defines social institutions as definite & sanctioned forms or modes of relationships between social beings in respect to one another outing to or to some extent object.
  • Mclver defined an institution as the, “established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity.”

Examples of social institutions : Marriage, family, education, religion etc. are ex of social institutions.

Characteristics of (Social) Institutions: 

  1. Every institution has some definite objectives or goals which are to be achieved by the members of the institution.
  2. Every institution is governed by certain rules and regulations which are equally binding on all members of the institution.
  3. There are certain definite procedures followed in the work of the institution.
  4. The continuity of the institution depends upon the collective endeavour of its members.
  5. Institutions are one of the means of controlling people in society and compared to other means of social control, institutions are comparatively stable.
  6. Every institution in a society is formed primarily to fulfil the needs of the individuals of the society.

Types of Social institutions

  • Primary Social institution : Sociologists often reserve the term ‘institution’ to describe normative systems that operate in five basic areas of life, which may be designated as the primary institutions.
    1. In determining kinship;
    2. In providing for the legitimate use of power;
    3. In regulating the distribution of goods and services;
    4. In transmitting knowledge from one generation to the next; and
    5. In regulating our relation to the supernatural.

These five basic institutions are c/l the family, govt/ state,economy, education & religion respectively.

  • Secondary Social institutions: derived from each of these five primary social institutions. For ex:
    1. 2° institutions derived from family :  marriage, divorce, monogamy, polygamy etc.
    2. 2°  institutions derived from religion : temple, mosque, church etc.
    3. 2°  institutions derived from education : school, college etc.
    4. 2°  institutions derived from state : democracy, Parliament etc.
    5. 2°  institutions derived from economy : trade and commerce, Immovable and movable property etc.

Importance of Social institutions

  1. These are media for proper working culture in society and passing on of culture through generations.
  2. Medium of passing on of morals, ideals, knowledge and behaviours etc. from one generation to other.
  3. Medium of control of human behaviour.
  4. Guide to younger generation to solve their problems.

Conclusion: A social institution never becomes extinct. New institutional rules and regulations may replace the old,but the institution goes on.

Social Groups : Concept & Relevance

A social group is defined as collection of Human Beings or relatively small Organization,  members of which identify & interact with each other as per the norms of group.

Definition – Acc to Sheriff and Sheriff, “A group is a social unit which consists number of individuals who stand in definite status and role relationships to one another and which possesses a set of values or norms of its own, regulating the behaviour of individual members at least in matters of consequence to the group”.

Characteristics of a Social Group

  1. Reciprocal Relations: An aggregate of individuals can constitute a social group only when they are interrelated to each other .This interrelation is reciprocal in nature → imp part
  2. Sense of Unity: A feeling of sympathy and sense of unitybinds together. Responsible for  prolonged cohesiveness of a social group.
  3. We-feeling: Defending the interests collectively and a sense of belonging together is another important characteristic feature of the social group.
  4. Common Interests: All the member of a group share common ideals & interests. A group is constituted in order to meet these.
  5. Similar Behaviour: In order to pursue the common interests, the members of behave in a common way and share a common behaviour.
  6. Group Norms: Every group is characterized by norms which are applicable equally to all the members of the group.
    • Though the degree of application of these norms differs amongst member in some types of groups, group norms as a characteristic feature, is a universal phenomenon.

A social group is dynamic and not static .It may change its form and expand its activities from time to time. Sometimes change may be swift and sudden, while at other time to occur so gradually that its member are unaware of it.

Classification of Group: various ways.

  1. Simmel, (German social Ⓟ)  – based on the no of individual who constitute a social group. Since the individual is the basic & elementary unit of social group, he started with a monad, a single person as a unit of group and continued to name the dyad, triad etc.
  2. Dwight Sanderson – on the basis of membership. He classified them into three basic types.
    1. Voluntary group – is the one which a man joins out of his own wish and will. He agrees to be a member of it and is free to withdraw his membership at any time.
    2. involuntary groups – is usually based on kinship, and a man has no choice to what group he will belong
    3. Delegate groups – is a group in which a man joins as a representative of people either elected or nominated by them.
  3. Ferdinand Tonnies classifies the group into Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (Communities and Associations, respectively).
  4. George Hassan – on basis of socials groups r/l with other groups
    1. Unsocial Groups – is the one which largely lives to itself & for itself & doesn’t participate in the larger society of which is a part.
    2. Pseudo-Social Groups – it participate in the large social life but mainly for its own gain & not for greater good.
    3. Anti – Social Groups – is one that act against the interest the society in which it is a unit.
    4. Pro-Social Groups – it is work for the interests of the society. It is engaged in constructive tasks & welfare of the people.
  5. Charles Cooley‘s classification: He classifies the groups into two types
    • Primary Groups – is the nucleus of any social organization. It is group in which a small number of persons come into direct contact with one another. There is mutual face to face relationship between members.
      • E.g Family & peer group. ; all social institution – m’age, family, Religion, caste
      • Here face to face r/l are in terms of degree of intimacy or social distance rather than physical distance. E.g people in court room are not but family member living apart are.
      • Important factor in shaping the personality of individual  –
      • Psychological impact – feeling of recognition, wontedness & acceptance → harmonious env for development of personality
      • It from the link b/w individual & society. Without it no socialisation so c/l nurseries of human nature
      • Individual’s need to remain in primacy group act as a major factor in the Maintenance of social order.

So it is not exaggeration to say that the society’s persistence & disintegration depends upon the similar conditions of the primary groups.

  • Secondary Groups – Unlike the 1° group the 2° group is a voluntary group guided by certain set of norms. 2° Group is usually goal oriented.
    • E.g A factory will have prescribed qualifications for its various jobs or a club will admit a persons based on fulfilment of certain requirements
    • The interaction b/w its members are formals & no close bonds can develop. Are limited in scope & calculated in terms of self – interests.
    • In modern social org the role of the it in influencing the human personality is noteworthy. – competitive spirit → develop natural tendencies + capabilities to fullest
    • Also helps in broadening the outlook of its members
    • Any member’s influence over the other’s personality is indirect.
    • More over an individual’s status in it depends on nature of role he is pursuing. 

Third type of group can be found is

  • References Group – Hayman introduced the concept & defined – At times when individual conform to the norms not of there group but which they want to be identified that group becomes reference group.
    • Ex – In process of Sanskritisation in India upper caste become references group for lower caste. Also in case of westernisation
    • Reference groups are formed, when some or all the members of the first group derive satisfaction or aspire membership in the reference groups  
    • This concept is significant, specially in the context of understating how human behaviour manifests in different social environments.

Conclusion – Thus social groups govern the action of individual. However with movement of societies towards post industrial, primary group are losing their relevance as no. Of activities performed by them are undertaken by secondary groups.

Institution & Group, 

  • Group is a collection of human beings whereas an institution is a set of folkways & mores (community has natural growth)
  • If group has an artificial creation, institution has a natural growth
  • A group may be temporary whereas institutions are permanent.
  • Membership of both is involuntary (of community is compulsory)
  • Institution deepens upon collective activity, community on mutual relations
  • Institution is indicative of procedure whereas a community is indicative of an organisation.

Community

Mclver , community is the area of living marked by some degree of social coherence. The fact of social living & common specific area give birth to community.

Element of Community

  • group of people
  • Locality
  • Community Sentiments
  • Permanency
  • Naturality
  • Likeness
  • Wider ends
  • A Particular Name
  • No legal Status

Association

Mclver, an association is “an organisation deliberately formed by collective pursuit of some interest or set of interests, which its members share.

Characteristics

  • Group of human being
  • Common specific interest
  • Cooperative spirit
  • Temporary(flood relief association)  or permanent (state, semi govt)
  • Regulation

Difference Between Association & Institution

  • association are comprised by human group
  • Association have concrete form & a definite str whereas institutions have no form & are abstract.
  • Institution evolve while association are formed
  • Associations lack the stability of an institution
  • Institutions are of purely symbolic nature & have no names where as association are concerted nature.  

Social Stratification

  • discus social stratification according to any three major approaches 20 – 2019

Introduction :Social Evaluation of  biological attributes’s difference , like age, sex & race or social attributes like difference in distribution of Social rewards like wealth, prestige & power etc, in terms of superiority & inferior leads to social inequality & hence its socially created & it universal phenomenon. If social inequity manifest itself without hierarchy c/l social differentiation but if in the form of a hierarchy involving ranking of groups, then is k/n as Social Stratification.

Meaning of Social Stratification – Thus social stratification can be defined as ways adopted by a society to rank its members in a hierarchy on the bases of class, status & power.

Definition of Social Stratification – Gisbert, Social Stratification is the the division of society into permanent groups or categories linked with each other by relationship of superiority & subordination.”

Irrespective of its nature it has some common features throughout the world.

  1. Ranking of individuals & groups in a hierarchy of status. Ex – In India it is done as Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra and untouchables in that order with Brahmin having highest social status.
  1. Inequalities are institutionalized and legitimized by society.
  2. Bases of inequalities vary from time to time and geographically. E.g. Caste based  societies in India and class based in western countries.
  3. Stratification is a universal phenomenon existing in simple, complex and peasant societies.
  4. Stratification is social in nature and does not include biologically caused inequalities.
  5. Members of various strata tend to have common life style and may display a characteristic of common identity which distinguishes them from other strata.
  6. social groups & individuals have unequal access to advantage in terms of economic resources, power and prestige

Dimensions of Social Stratification

Acc to Max Weber societies are stratified in the three separate dimensions of class, status & power. These are christened as “Weber’s Triumvarate” however there is also possibilities that these dimension can coincide.

Forms of Social Stratification

In terms of time & space most familiar bases are caste, class and estate. So, generally subdivided into three types

  1. Caste based stratification – The Caste System :
    • A caste system is a normatively closed system with a sole reliance on ascription of status. The whole society is organised into hierarchical arranged group, membership of which is determined by birth.
    • This system of stratification exist in one or another form in different societies of world.  Ex in India divides society in Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra and untouchable strata., Social stratification in American society, European society
    • On the face of it caste system looks rigid with low caste mobility as it is based on birth, in other words ascribed status, But in present context it is no more rigid as it used to be in past.
    • Urbanisation, industrialisation, westernisation, modernisation & sanskritisation are some of the important process making caste system to change & to adopt to the new situations & demand.
  • Class based stratification – The Class System :
    • It is aa system of stratification based on economic criteria dividing society into higher and lower class. E.g. European countries.
    • Social class may be defined as category of individual sharing a common economic status.
    • Status ranking of a class within a society is based on the subjective criteria & associated values which differ from society to society.
    • For ex – In some societies, higher value is given to education, while in other technical profession may be considered a highly esteemed.
    • Although class system is achieved status but social-ethnic & sexual differences can play their role in an individual’s ability to achieve.
  • Estate based stratification – The Estate System :
    • is based on power and various strata were clergy, aristocracy and commoners.
    • Estate system is normatively closed system with restricted mobility.
    • It may be taken as synonymous with feudalism whereby status is determined by birth, land & physical force.
    • E.g. Brazil and Latin American countries with system of big land holding. But recently land reforms have brought an end of estate system in various countries.
    • The feudal estates of medieval Europe had 3 imp components. Clergy, aristocracy & commoners.

Other bases of social stratification are gender, ethnicity, family background, kinship bonds, educational status etc.

  • Slavery is another type of social stratification.

Three types of societies based on social stratification

  1. Egalitarian or unstratified societies: There is no stratification based on unequal access either to economic resources, power or prestige. E.g. Foragers in Mbuti and Australian aborigine tribes.
  2. Rank based societies (Partially stratified) : Here there is no unequal access to economic resources and power but access to prestige differs. E.g. Samoans of Tahiti.
  3. Class societies (fully stratified): Here there is unequal access to all three i.e. economic resources, power and prestige. E.g. US, India etc.

Characters & Advantage

  • Power plays important role in maintaining social stratification.
  • Maintaining group solidarity and cultural identity, political consolidation and economic cooperation are some of the advantages of social stratification.

Disadvantage

  • But its ill effects are more such as economic inequalities, untouchability, oppression of lower caste and class, deprivation, poverty, detrimental to democracy and hampers social communication between different communities.

Conclusion :  Hence Social Stratification is one or another way by which Society try to differentiate one from another to establish hierarchy. Some systems are disintegrating like estate, some are changing according to time like caste but stratification remains a universal features of very society with vital effect on social life of a person.

Ascribed Status & Achieved Role

Status

  • Definition: Its is a person’s social position without reference to higher or lower status. Status also shows one’s ranking in the social system with reference to higher or lower position.
  • Weber’s definition: Status is the honour accorded to a person or group by the community based on family background, educational qualification, economic condition, caste, ethnicity etc.

Sociologist use the term status in two different but related meaning,

  • firstly as to peron’s social position without referring to any contesting higher & lower ones.
  • Secondly, the term is used to designate one’s raning in the social system with connotation of higher & lower.

Types of Status

  • Ascribed status
    • is a status associated with birth. Such type of ascribed status is prevalent in India, China etc.
    • Other bases of ascribed status are sex, age group, ancestry etc.
    • There is limited mobility in a society with ascribed status
  • Achieved status
    • Contrary to the ascribed status, an achieved status is the one accorded to a person on account of his personal accomplishments.
    • Achieved status is found in open class society.
    • In societies with achieved status there is freedom to intermingle for different strata of he society.

Role

Definition – Role can be defined as rights & obligation assigned with particular status. In other words roles are thus, “pattern of actions & interaction that people enact whenever they engage in any collective activity on when alone, when they act as directed by or for such activity.

Features

  • Concept of role shows interactions b/w social positions or statuses.
  • A role is a pattern of behaviour associated with a distinctive status.
  • When people engage in collective activity, their interactions with each other are nothing but roles.
  • For roles to come in play, some kind of social organization is important. Hence roles don’t exist independently.
  • Roles are always reciprocal. Ex husband and wife, teacher and student, thief and police etc.
  • If someone deviate from expected role social recognition is reduced.

Role Repertoire : The sum totals of all roles performed by an individual are known as role repertoires. A person may perform may roles at a time.

  • For ex a Football player may be a friend, enemy, wife, mother etc.

Role Partners: These are persons enacting same kind of role. Example: Student, friend etc.

To perform one’s role, individual must have full understanding of role of the role. In performances of many roles a situation may come when individual is conflicting pressures b/c of conflicting role requirements. The role conflict may result in serious percussion for the society if the person involved holds aaa responsible position. Individual is always required to minimising the enhances off conflict. 

Conclusion – Thus status & role go hand in hand & socially recognised positions I.e status depends upon roe it performs s societies are moving towards open class societies.