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2.5: Kinship

Kinship, Consanguinity & Affinity

Acc to G.P Murdock – Kinship is structured system of relationship in which kins are bound to one another by complex interlocking ties.

  • It is system of social relationships in rooted biological facts.
  • Kinship is system / web of social relationships thr which on individual is associated with other individual by real (blood, birth, m’age) or putative(Fictive) family ties
  • It lead to formation certain grouping in society such as of Lineage, clan, Family. These groups essentially for function of society.

Kinship Meaning

  • Though not very imp in complex society but paramount important in simple societies
  • All matters such as – to whom marry, obey, align, inherit & pass Status & Property is determined by Kinship.
  • Provides ready to handle category in simple society to distinguish people & ordering one’s relation with other.

Structural Aspect of Kinship

  • K.r/l are based on two types of r/ls
    • R/l by Blood or Consanguinity – c/l Descent
    • R/l by Marriage or Affinity – c/l Alliance
  • R/l with ancestors is also imp & ancestors are part of working group.
  • These categories + Related rights & obligations make kinship system
  • Thus kinship is based on both biological & social factors.

Types of Kins

  • Affinal Kins – they are r/l thr marriage (Social factor)
  • Consanguineal Kins – they are r/l thr blood or birth (biological)

Consanguineal Kins

  • Kin r/l thr birth or blood
  • Includes those with common ancestors & excludes those who lack
  • Universal types
  • Types of Consanguineal Kins
    • Based on Distance
      • Primary Kins – Parents & children (nuclear Family)
      • Secondary Kins – Primary Kins of Primary Kins ex – Ego & Grandfather & ego & paternal uncle etc)
      • Tertiary Kins – Primary Kins of secondary Kins. Ex cousins
    • Based on Line of Descent
      • Lineal Kins – direct descendants of common ancestor (father son in Patrilineal & Mother-daughter in matrilineal
      • Collateral Kins – descent from common ancestor but not in direct line (Nephew & Paternal Uncle, maternal or paternal cousins) 
      • Kindred Kins – Individual’s world of kins of both the types i.e thr bonds of blood/birth & bonds of m’age

Affinal Kins

  • kins related by m’age
  • Not related by blood
  • If m’age broken, kinship ties dissolves

Functional Aspect of Kinship

  • humans consciously & explicitly use kinship to define social relations
  • Has two types of functions
    • Horizontal – Relationship with others i.e est & maintain effective social group
    • Vertical – Inheritance & succession
      • Continuity of Generation & orderly transfer of property & status
  • Provide context & idiom for many kinds of social relationships
    • Economic f. – dependency
    • Political f. – Resolution of disputes by lineage or clan head
    • Religious f. – Tallensi Religion : clan or lineage has their own religious practices
    • Social f. – Social bonds & social groups organised on basis of kinship
  • Prescribe behavioural pattern, thus making social behaviour systemised & orderly 

Changing Trend

  • Post industrial society, non kins becoming more imp Though still imp in simple & Tribal societies
  • Though political & economic function declined but religious activities are still performed collectively.
  • Variation – Adoption of Child
  • Varied recognition of spouse in matrilineal & patrilineal society

Kinship & Social Strcuture

  • Components of SS – Status, Role, People, Interpersonal Relationship
  • Kinship Terminology – explain social Role → thus help to understand structure of society.

Conclusion – Morgan, calls kinship “Ideom of Social existence.”

Descent : Principle / Rules & Types

Descent is a cultural rule connecting particular set of kins b/c of Pre-assumed common ancestor. Unlike kinship where relation can be through blood and marriage, descent can be traced only thr blood relations

Need of Descent Rules – human beings live in groups & has cultural needs.

  • One of this is transfers of rights & obligations in terms of acquisition, share and transfer.
  • If this is done randomly, it can lead to unequal distribution and chaos
  • Thus to avoid this we need definite rule of descent. So

Rules of descent directs us in:

  • from where we can get.
  • with whom we can share
  • To whom we can transfer

Rules of descent

  • Unilineal descent Rule: Descent is traced thr only one line of parentage either thr male or female line.
    • Patrilineal – Descent thr father side ; it is most frequent rule
      • Ex- Papuan (New Guinea)
      • Yoruba (W.Nigeria)
      • Munda (chota Nagpur)
    • Matrilineal – Descent thr mother side
      • e.g- Ashanti Kingdom (Ghana)
      • khansi, Jantia..
    • Though descent is traced only thr one line, other line is not ignored as it has special place in
      • Rites de passage
      • Arbitrators at time of blood feud
      • More acceptable as conflict with ego is absent
  • Double Descent descent is traced thr both lines of parentage, but inheriting non- overlapping elements of culture from each line.
    • Origin supposed to be –
      • Matrilineal descent with change over to patrilocal residence 
      • Also Male dominance in matrilocal society – give rise to this
    • Example
      • Yako (E. Nigeria 🇳🇬 )
        • Patrilineal Descent – Immovable Property Material Resource)
        • Matrilineal Descent – Consumable property & rituals
      • Herero Tribe (Africa)
        • Matrilineal Descent – Material property
        • Patrilineal Descent – Religious Function
      • Ashanti of West Africa
      • Venda of Nigeria
  • Parallel Descent – rare type of descent in which one traces descent through ancestor of one’s own gender
    • Case study – Jane Safer (1975) in his study of Saha Tribe (near Columbia) studied parallel descent.
  • Ambilineal Descent – individual free to choose descent from either of parents. It is only type of descent in which in one line descent from both male & female can be found
    • Members believe in common ancestor but can’t specify genealogical line
    • E.g Samoa (W. Pacific)
  • Bilateral Descent – system where relatives on mother’s & father’s side are casually important for emotional ties & property transfer
    • Ex – Javanese people, Dimasa (N.E India), Tribes in PNG

Factors influencing rule of Descent

  • Contribution to Family production : Whoever contributes most decides type of rule of descent
  • Prestige of Profession : Among Hunter gatherers though woman contribute more than 2/3rd of production → but stil patrilineality as hunting is considered as man’s profession.
    • If men stays out from home for long time, then no. of impo. fun” performed by women thus leads to matrilineality e.g- Nayars.
  • Nature of Division of labour
    • Case study : Saha of Santa Marta
      • Men →  food gathering
      • women → take care of household.
    • Thus, descent related to agri. & food gathering pass thr male line whereas household pass thr female line.
  • Demography: If in natural calamity, sharp dedine in population without reduction in resources results in ambilineality.
    • eg- British Colombian tribes kwakittuti.
    • Thus, as various socio-cultural factors lead to rules of descent. Hence Descent Can be called as cultural rule.
  • Resource availability – M.J. Harner study on Indians in N.W. Pacific → imp Source : Salmon
    • thus ambilineal group based on availability

Unilineal Descent

Introduction : Unilineal descent rule means tracing the line of ancestor unilinnealy or using single line i.e descent is traced thr only one line of parentage either thr male or female line.

  • Example of Unilineal Descent
    • Patrilineal – Descent thr father side ; it is most frequent rule
      • Ex- Papuan, Kapauka (New Guinea)
      • Yoruba (W.Nigeria)
      • Munda (chota Nagpur)
    • Matrilineal – Descent thr mother side
      • e.g- Ashanti Kingdom (Ghana)
      • khansi, Jantia..
      • Trunk of small Pacific Islands
  • Other sex equally shares the descent but can‘t transfer the rights & obligations to their descendants which are done only thr recognised line of descent.
  • In it, important relatives are excluded e.g Mother is excluded in patrilineal descents
  • These Rules affiliates an individual with a line of kin extending back in time & into future.

Societies with Unilineal Descent – societies who lack elaborate political org but need some formal organisation for sharing & transfer of name, property & cultural traits arising out of large size of population & wealth.

Features

  • Unambiguous & Distinctive Grouping – as unilinear rule can form clear cut groping – as easy to act together if each belong to one group or line
  • Stable or permanent Group as structured around ancestor, not ego, who can’t be changed
  • Line of descent & Authority don’t converge matrilineal form while converge in patrilineal form as only Male Authority
  • Though descent is traced only thr one line, other line is not ignored as it has special place / Importance in
    • Rites de passage
    • Arbitrators at time of blood feud
    • More acceptable as conflict with ego is absent

Organization of Unilineal Descent Groups

  • Ⓐ distinguished Several types of unilineal groups like – lineage, clan, phratry & moiety.
  • Evans Pritchard’s classification of unilineal descent groups
    • Extended Family ⇒ Lineage ⇒ Clan ⇒ Phratry⇒ Moiety → Tribe
    • ←  Known Ancestor → ←  Unknown Ancestor-Moiety → Tribe

Functions of Unilineal Descent

  • Regulating marriage(Lineage and clan exogamy)
  • Continuation b/w generations – socialization of child and initial child care, orderly transmission of property.
  • Defines universe of a person- upon whom to depend in normal and emergency times.
  • Social bond and social groups
  • Economic cooperation during marriage, in agriculture etc.
  • Resolution of dispute through clan headman.
  • Religious function – eg. Tallensi religion: Clan or lineages have their own religious beliefs and practices.

Development of Unilinneal Descent Rule

  • war in society lacking complex system of political organization provides impetus for formation of unilineal descent group.
    • It is b/c UD groups provides descent members.
  • Unambiguous group identity & no ambiguity about indivual membership → distinct unit → fight in alliance
    • It is perfectly clear whether one belongs to a particular lineage, clan, phratry or moiety.

Change in Unilineal Descent Groups : Factors

  • Modernization.
  • Secularization
  • Industrialization
  • Individualism
  • Materialism
  • Emergence of state and formal organization, welfare measures

Result: No future for unilineal descent groups and emergence of bilateral is ego centric and fades away after death of ego.

Double Descent

Double Descent descent is traced thr both lines of parentage, but inheriting non- overlapping elements of culture from each line.

Origin supposed to be –

  • Matrilineal descent with change over to patrilocal residence 
  • Also Male dominance in matrilocal society – give rise to this

Example

  • Yako (E. Nigeria 🇳🇬 )
    • Patrilineal Descent – Immovable Property Material Resource)
    • Matrilineal Descent – Consumable property & rituals
  • Herero Tribe (Africa)
    • Matrilineal Descent – Material property
    • Patrilineal Descent – Religious Function
  • Ashanti of West Africa
  • Venda of Nigeria

Features

  • In it descent is Reckoned matrilineally for some & patrilineally for other
  • Here both rules of descent are operative simultaneously
  • No overlapping in sharing or inheriting various cultural elements from each line of parents
  • Residence is mostly patrilocal
  • Authority differ but is mainly patriarchal

Significance – demographic vagaries of unilineal descent are prevented in this type of descent.

Conclusion – Thus, double descent is mainly a response to combat problems of unilineal descent such as diminishing groups or segmentation due to over population. 

Ambilineal / Bilineal / Matri or Patrilineal Descent

defined as “a rule which affiliates an individual with a kin related with him or her through man or women.” 

  • some people in society trace their descent through male line & others through female line
  • but same person does not trace descent through both lines simultaneously due to ambiguity.
  • Members believe in common ancestor but can’t specify genealogical line

Example – E.g Samoa (W. Pacific)

Features of Ambilineal Society

  • Ambilineal society is less numerous than unilineal or even bilateral societies.
  • descent group is commonly named & may have identifying emblem or even a totem line
  • other productive resources may be owned by descent group.
  • Mythology & religious practices are often associated with the group just as in unilineal descent.
  • have various levels of descent group such as lineage, clan, phratry etc.
    • They have clan & subclans
    • Both groups are exogamous.
    • Associated with each ambilineal clan there are one or more chiefs and subclans take their name from junior chief.
  • There are a number of ambilineal group affiliations. Person may theoretically affiliate with any or all of the ambilineal groups to which he or she is related.

Development of Ambilineal Group :

  • unilineal descent group → Ambilineal one under special conditions, particularly due to depopulation due to Famine or war.
  • Once this occurs regularly, Society is transformed into ambilineal descent group

Kindred or Bilateral Kinship

Definition & Explanation

  • individual’s world of kins of both the type i.e through bonds of birth & m’age is c/l
  • Thr bonds of blood kin relationships include from both Father’s & mother’s line.
    • relatives on mother’s & father’s side are casually important for emotional ties
  • Unlike Decent group, which is ancestor centric, Kindred is egocentric group 
  • Relates an ego lineally to all Eight(8) Great grand parents & Laterally all Third & fourth Cousins
    • Huge group reduced to small circle of relatives known as Kindred
  • Unlike unilineal descent, it is laterally rather than lineally, organised
  • No certainty about membership, thus amorphous, vague, lacking, distinctiveness

Example

  1. Ex – Javanese people, Dimasa (N.E India), Tribes in PNG
  2. Iban of Borneo → upto second cousins
    • Calls them for head hunting
  3. Zulu of S. Africa
  4. Complex society like USA → weak kinship ties → but invites certain close relatives (Kindreds) on occasions

Features

  • Ego centric
  • As ego centric →  Neither permeant nor a continuing one thr generations in fixed pattern.
  • temporal variation → membership/composition changes as ego grows older.
  • Never same for two persons except siblings
  • No name & No common purpose, only temperory meeting group → weak social unit.
  • No self perpetuating → disintegrates after death of ego.
  • since everyone is member of diff. & overlapping Kindred → No clear cut division / grouping in society, ambiguous.
  • Never a residential group
  • Not a true descent grp as organised laterally.
  • No-function of inheritance or succession.
  • Temporary organization for specific purpose

Functions

  • Economic – such as cleaning hill terrain, hunting, etc.
  • Regulates m’age – Usually exogamous.
  • Political – co-op each other & political activity & emergency.
  • Social – Cut across boundary of server all Social groups → integrating society
    • Overlapping membership → neutralises tension
  • Becomes effective during emergency situations like birth, m‘Age, death etch
  • Serve as distributor Group – After ego’s death if no successor

Conclusion – Kindred is not a decent group. It is network of relationship thr blood & m’age. It works as a utilitarian group ie operates only when needed.

Forms of Descent Groups

  • Ⓐ distinguished Several types of unilineal groups like – lineage, clan, phratry & moiety.
  • Evans Pritchard’s classification of unilineal descent groups
    • Extended Family ⇒ Lineage ⇒ Clan ⇒ Phratry⇒ Moiety → Tribe
    • ←  Known Ancestor → ←  Unknown Ancestor-Moiety → Tribe

Lineage – कुणबा

Introduction – Unilineal group of kin who trace their descent from known common ancestor through known links.

  • It is a smaller group but varies in size in different societies.

Explanation

  • Consanguineal (blood Related) group
  • Claim descent from common known ancestor
  • Can actually demonstrate links b/w themselves & ancestor → Demonstrated Descent
  • Depending on rules of descent – can be
    • Patrilineage
      • Witoto Red Indians (Amazonia)
      • Nuer (Africa)
      • Agri Societies of India & china
    • Matrilineage
      • Veddas (Ceylon)
      • Tikopia (S. Africa)
      • Khasi & Garo (Meghalaya) 
    • Ambilineage
      • Samoans (Polynesia)
      • Iban (Sarawak)
      • Pastoral society of Tibet
    • Kurds of Middle East are lineage based society

Characteristics

  • Are named: labels, symbols & even designation
  • Exogamous: as they ar consanguineous
  • Common religious obligation: own deities, priest & peculiar rituals. especially Ancestor worship
  • Corporate property ownership: owns Property and controls use & inheritance
  • Corporate enterprise – co-operate on economic purpose.
  • Social control – regulates behaviour, have own laws & punish
  • Mutual aid– on important occassions in life cycle.
  • Constitutes Feuding groups – feud with each other or unit against others. eg- Nuer (Sudan) Tiv (C. Nigeria)
  • Unit of Clan – lineage is unit of clan group & is smaller in size than chan, as a clan is made up of many lineage

Clan (Sib) – गोत्र

Introduction – It is a set of kins whose members believe themselves to be descended from common ancestors. But the ancestor is not known, which is fictive or imaginative.

Explanation

  • Also called as Sib .
  • Ancestor → might lived many generations back & presence rooted in mythology or can’t exist at all
  • Members have only tradition of belonging to same group, can only stipulate descent but can’t demonstrate
    • Thus Stipulated Descent
  • A clan is made up of a number of linneages. But Not Universal. Some clan can be w/o lineage & vice verse.
  • Based on form of unilineal descent
    • patrilineal descent is called Patriclan
      • Nuer (Sudan)
      • Swazi (S. Africa)
      • China & India
    • matrilineal descent as Matriclan.
      • Kwakiutl Red Indians (British Colombia)
      • Navana (USA)
      • Nayars (Kerala)
      • Trobriand Islanders

Characteristics

  • often designated by plant or animal names c/l totem which may have some special significance for the group & provides a means of group identification
  • Exogamous: as they ar consanguineous
  • Common religious obligation: own deities, priest & peculiar rituals. especially Ancestor worship
  • Religion – Rationalised body of mythology explains origin of clan.
  • Corporate property ownership: owns Property and controls use & inheritance
  • Corporate enterprise – co-operate on economic purpose.
  • Social control – regulates behaviour, have own laws & punish
  • Mutual aid– on important occassions in life cycle.
  • Constitutes Feuding groups – feud with each other or unit against others. eg- Nuer (Sudan) Tiv (C. Nigeria)

Compare & Contrast b/w Lineage & Clan

Similarities

  • M’age regulation
  • Peace keeping with Kin
  • Help in Wars

Differentiate B/w Lineage & Clan

Parameter / FeatureLineageClan
DefinitionKnown common ancestorcommon ancestor , but not known
SizeUnit of Clan → Smaller in sizegroup of lineage → larger size
ResidentialResidentialNon – residential
Dispute ResolutionDispute within lineage b/w sublineage can be quickly & peacefully resolved with help of lineage headman dispute b/w subclans can eventually lead to war
Feeling of OnenessStrongerweaker
Totemnot much importancevery much importance
ExogamyAlways (Exception →  Muslims)May or may not

Phratry

Introduction – It is a unilineal descent group comprising of two or more clans related thr a common ancestor, E.g. Crow Indian

Explanation

  • Consist of no of supposedly related clans
  • In it Descent link  is unspecified or unknown.
  • Based On principle of descent
    • Matri Phratreis
    • Patri Pharatries
  • Found in very few societies in world

Example

  • Hopi, Navaho & other Red Indians (USA)
  • Maria Gond (MP), Ao Nagas (Nagaland), Raj Gonds (AP)
  • Crow Indians– 6 phratries each divided in two or more clans.
  • Kaska Indian– two motities

Characteristics

  • May or may not be named
  • May or may not be exogamous e.g → Hopis (Exogamous), Crow Red Indian (Endogamous)
  • Common Religious Obligations & rites
  • Imp political unit
    • E.g – Aztecs (Mexico) → Phratry are imp political unit in str of empirical
  • May be associated with totemism e.g Maria Gond
  • Solidarity → some kind of special affinity with kinship ; Phratry – Greek word ‘Phrates’ → Brother’

Conclusion – Thus, in the final analysis , a phratry is a kin group of brotherhood in which there are several clans combined together.

Moiety

Introduction – Moiety means half in French, when a society is divided into two unilineal descent groups or a half, we call this group moiety. I.e Dual division of society into twounilineal descent groups

Explanation

  • The people in each moiety believe to be descendent of common ancestor but ancestor is not known
  • every individual → Necessarily member of one.
  • Society with moiety system usually has relatively small population around 9000.
  • Moiety with phratry and clan tends to be larger.
  • Wider occurrence than Phratry

Example

  • Ao, Rengma, Angami Naga
  • Gonds & Korkus (MP)
  • Bondos (Orissa)
  • Murrngin (Austrelia)
  • Tlingit Red Indian (British Colombia)
  • Toda (Nilgiri)

Characteristics

  • Named (toda) or unnamed (Austrelian)
  • Mostly exogamous
  • May constitute totemic group (Bondos)
  • East detection of kinship relation
  • Complementary roles → exchange services

Evolution of Descent Groups

Introduction – diff. societies, diff. Descent groups

Do not occur at all in simple hunters gthering society → m’age being integrating individual society.

  • horticultural, pastoral & more intensive agriculture groups → Descent Group provide the Structural framework

L.H. Morgan (evolutionist in 19th century) in his work “System of Consanguinity & Affinity of human family 1870 – suggested

  • descent groups progressed the evolutionary manner
  • Promiscuity →  Matrilineal → Patrilineal.
    • promiscuous societies →  Paternity never certain → Descent only through mother →  emergence of Matrilineal group → Accumulation of wealth → wealth resided with males → Rise of patrilineal group →  civilisation →
      • complex patterns of indiviuality
      • specialization of labour.
      • mobility
    • → Both maternal & paternal Bilateral.

George Murdock invalided Morgan’s vs evolutionary theory

  • b/c he found simplest hunter gatherers practise →  bilateral descent. Mala)
  • Acc to him, Descent rules → No r/l with level of tech, or social dev

Conclusion – though Most schlors rejected Morgan, but some rein beth subsistence pattern & descent accepted.

Structural Principles of Kinship / Origin of Lineal System

Introduction – Kinship refers to relations which are rooted in biological facts. And, Structure of Kin grousp refers to those persisting patterns of relationships which form the basis of their organisation.

Robin Fox (his book encounter with anthropology) – identified certain conditions to be met by every kinship system to survive, sustain. He c/l these Structural principles of Kinship

  • Men Impregnate women
    • sexual r/l →  procreation
    • Biological fact, culturally recognised. As every society made arrangement
  • Women bear the children
    • debarred women from participating in activities of earning livelihood.
    • extended r/l beth men & women e beyond simply participation in procreation
  • Men Control Economic activity
    • Confinement of women to bearing & rearing of child.
    • Men →  manage, control, exploit, exchange resources.
  • Incest is taboo
    • arrangements to get men or women from outside for matting.
    • helps in extension of web of kinship relation.

The way all 4 conditions are met → determines structure of kinship.

Patrilineality – origin

  • To meet all conditions
    • men →  allowed to stay In group
    • women →  given out as wives.
  • Other women → brought as wives
  • Result
    • Incest not violated
    • consanguineously related men coop. to manage resources.
  • Rise of {Patrilineal, Patrilocal & Patriarchal } → kinship systems.
  • Easiest way to meet conditions → thus common.
  • Examples of Patrinlineal Societies
    • Tikopia of western Pacific studied by Raymond Firth
    • Mossi of West Africa studied by Hammond
    • Most Tribes of India

Matrilineality – origin

  • keeping woman in group
    • thus men be brought from outside to meet 1st & 4th condition.
  • but then 3rd condh difficult → conflict b/w affinal & outside male difficult.
  • thus difficult to achieve all 4 condition → thus very rare among world.
  • only in those society where,  war & trade commence →  long period away home.
  • Matrilineal Societies
    • Garo & Khasi of Meghalaya
    • Tulu Speaking Communities of South Lakshadweep
    • Nayar of Kerala
    • Ashanti of Ghana
    • Navajo of Africa

Case study

  • Nayars → woman preserved
  • property → inherited by female & but managed by consanguineously related male
  • To meet 3rd condition → weakened martial /affinal bond mating r/l not permanent    →  thus all condition met

Kinship Terminology

Kinship is web of social relationships in which individual is related to other individual by blood, birth, marriage and also fictive ties.

kinship Terminology is set of terms which designates position of individual with kinship network.

  • E.g Husband-wife, father son.
  • All the kinship terms are socially recognised entities with specific roles and status attached to it.

Kinship Terminology by L.H. Morgan

L.H. Morgan, classical evolutionist in 19th century extensively studied kinship terminologies in Iroquois Indians of North America. With expanding his study over other societies, Morgan provided following classification in his “System of Consanguinity and Affinity of Human family” (1871)

Based on Observation

  1. Classificatory Kinship Terminology
    • Used to denote group of relation with single kin term
    • Lineals merging with collaterals
    • Two Types
      1. Malayan Types – lineage merging with all collateral
        • e.g mother, mother’s sister, father’s Sister are c/l mother
      2. North American Type – when lineages merger with some collaterals not all. E.g Only mother & mother’s sister are c/l mother
  2. Descriptive Kinship Terminology
    • Pinpoint the exact relationship with kin
    • different terms for different kins
    • Example – North Indian Kinship Terminology e.g Father – Papa, Father’s E. Brother – Tau & younger – Kaka, Mother – Maa & Mather’s sister – Masai

As Morgan was an evolutionist, he gave the sequence of evolution of kinship Terminology as follows ;

  • Malayan → North American → Descriptive Kinship Terminology

Criticism – by scholars who gave different factors which determine K.T

  • Kroeber studied multiple historical influences Shaping kinship terminologies
    • Along with Gifford, He also proponded diff. kinship terminologie as product of morphological differences in vocabulary & Elementary Psychological process.
  • Rivers – Rivers was particularly interested in linkage of kinship terminology & marriages. He believed kinship terminologies to be antecend of marriage practices
  • R.C.Brown & Sapir –
    • Studied sociological principles influences on K.T ex. Bifurcate merging type of K.T may result from the operation of sociological principle of levirate
    • Customs of Preferential M’age – i.e rule of marriage may affect ; ex Bifurcate merging system: result of levirate
  • Murdock – Constitution of Kin & local groups – i.e exogamous kin groups tend to be associated with bifurcate merging types of kinship terminology.

Study of A.R Redcliffe Brown

  • Around 1930s, British Anthropologist Brown studied Kinship terminologies for Australian aborigines.
  • He revised study of K.T in 20th century Anthropology
  • In his African Kinship System, Brown suggested importance of terminologies to understand social structure.

Factors Deciding Choices of Terminology

Kroeber (1909) & Louie (1929) recognised 9 factors influencing choices of Kinship terminology

Affinity Bifurcation Collaterality DependenceGeneration PolarityRelative Age Sex Speaker’s Sex

Typology of Kinship Terminological Systems – G.P Murdock (1949) took generation as basis of classification & gave ethnic labels to it as follows

  1. Hawaiian System – is simplest of all and ignore even the sex distinction.
  2. Eskimo system -Uses descriptive for lineal kins and classificatory for collateral kins.
  3. Iroquois system – merges siblings and Parallel cousins in same term, thus popular in matrilineal systems.
  4. Omaha system– uses classificatory for mother’s side and descriptive for patemal kins.
  5. Crow system– matrilineal mirror image of omaha system
  6. Sudanese system– extreme descriptive System for different kins.

Draw Diagrams from – for this part

However, importance of kin terms does not lie in their classification, but the terms represent :

  1. Particular Social Status associated with role
  2. kin terms occur in pairs (father-son)
  3. Unfolding of kin terms helps in unders tanding kinship e.g- Masi means Ma Jaisi represents stronger bond b/w them as mother-son bond

KT & Social Structure – helps in understanding of

  • Status
  • Role
  • interpersonal relation

Thus, kinship Terminologies helps in analysing social relationships in kin network and status & role associated twith that kin..

Descent, Filiation & Complimentary Filiation

Filiation

Allocation of individuals to a descent group is technically known as Filiation. It can be thr the father’s line or mother’s line or both. However

  • filiation is one’s relationship with his own parents
  • It decides line of property inheritance & succession to political office.
  • can be through the father’s line or mother’s line or both.
  • For ex in patrilineal system of descent, filiation is to father’s line thus resulting into transfer of property from father to son. Same from political office.

Descent & Filiation

Meyer fortes, was first to distinguish b/w descent and filiation

  • Descent being relationship of person with ancestors among whom nearest one is grand parents.
  • Filiation relation of Person with his own parents
  • In his study of Tallensi society of Ghana, he observed that Society was entirely built around “Lineage system”
    • He observed that although membership of lineage is determined by kinship, but it’s function are political & economic
    • for this reason, Fortes made distinguish b/w filiation and descent
    • He said filiation stemmed from being legitimate child of one’s parents & this was normally Bilateral i.e child was normally affiliated to both parents
    • Fortes argued that Jural authority flowed from descent , not filiation e.g Jural Authority from father’s line in patrilineal society
  • Thus filiation was relevant only in dementia context, whereas descent was a political & jural matter.

Complementary Filiation

It was introduced by M. Fortes in his study of Tallensi of Ghana. It refers to relation b/c child & parent from who s/he doesn’t trace descent. I.e Kins other than filiation from complementary Filiation.

  • Ex – In patrilineal society, there are imp Socially defined links with mother’s family / Kins. Such as maternal uncle or M. Grandparents. Same applies to matrilineal society.
  • According to J. Goody one inherit some kind of Property & status from descent group (Filiation) & other from complementary filiation.

C.F & Existence of Groups  :

  • Acc to Fortes – Existence of group was, at bottom, always similar & always involved the recognition of complementary role of two parents. – ex In patrilineal, though political, Jural & Military Authority ingnores maternal ties, but nonetheless there exists domestic level relation where links thr mother side are recognised.

Function

  • Special place in rites de passage
  • Arbitrators in time of blood feuds
  • More acceptable to ego as conflict with ego is absent.

Significance of Complementary Filiation

  • In lineage based society, it provides imp residual Security or insurance against breakdown of filiation relation. E.g – If bride price not paid → child right not given to husband → child have access to property of matrilineal line.
  • Malinowski – in his study of Trobriand Islanders (matrilineal society) → deep emotional conflict b/w father’s attachment with children  & rule of inheritance which debars children from acquire father’s property. Thus C.F → some satisfaction or father’s way reinforcing material, ideological & emotion bond with children (son)
  • Religious Function e.g  Yako (E. Nigeria 🇳🇬 )
    • Patrilineal Descent – Immovable Property Material Resource)
    • Matrilineal Descent – Consumable property & rituals

Criticism of Counter Filiation

  • Edmund Leach → Criticised Fortes idea of C.F
    • Says – other lineal side (C.F) is not merely as muted kinship, but rather is part of Affinal kins → seen as group who can give you sexual partners.

Difference b/w Filiation & C.F

  • Filiation → Political & hierarchical character ; where as C.F emotional & personal character
  • Filiation → All Members in descent group have same ties ; where in C.F every member have different ties of C.F from one other (Thus gives an idiom to feeling of individuality & interdependence)

Conclusion – Filiation & C.F show way of inheritance & succession from different parents

Kinship Behaviour

Introduction- Kinship Behaviour definite & comparatively permanent patterns of behaviour beth diff. members of society. 

  • Every Relation have particular type of Behaviour eg
    • son → father = respect,
    • husband →  wife ⇔ love.
    • brother → sister = affection.
  • K.B. → characterized by role expectations which forms basis for mutual coaction & behaviour b/w king.

Types of Kinship Behaviour

  • Avoidance → two kin should remain away from each other.
    • Not only avoid sexual contact but also face to face interaction.
    • Eg. Father in law & daughter in law ; Purdah system (familiarity is limited by covering the face ) ; brother sister avoidance in veddas
    • R.C.Brown in his Andamanese study brother do not talk to younger’s wife.
    • Frazer: It is precautionary to prevent breach of incest.
    • R.C. Brown & Murdock: create serious troubles In Yeln.
  • Joking Relation– It is  tendency to increase proximity by allowing liberal social interaction b/w 2 Kins.
    • Also seen as a Safety valve release mechanism for the tensions generated due to imposition of restrictions.
    • Acc to Malinowski – Potential sexual Partners
    • eg-Devar-Bhabhi ; JiJa-Sali
    • S.C Roy’s Study of Oraon reported JR – gave way to m’age b/w grandfather & grand daughter
    • Verner Elwin reported m’age b/w Grand mother & son among Baigas
      • Also among Chamars, a depressed class of leather – tanners in North India m’age b/w Grand father & Grand daughter is reported which resulted in birth of a child
  • Teknonymy → Kin is not referred directly but through another kin.
    • Introduced by Taylor
    • eg – female in Hindu family doesn’t call husband’s name. But refer him as father of Guddu’ or any other name.
  • Avanculate – certain right obligations Permitted & expected from maternal uncle.
    • comes first among all male relatives
    • eg- In Upnayna sanskara, maternal uncle lift’s boy & reach him toward’s his father.
  • Amitate r/l b/w ego & his father’s sister
    • gets more respect than mother.
  • Couvade → husband Imitates behaviour of wife at time of child birth
    • observes same taboo which are imposed on wife
    • E.g Toda (India)

Descent Theories

Introduction – Descent theories, aka lineage theories emerged in 1940s with publication of “The Nuers” (1940), “African Political System) (1940)

Descent theory

  • Divided in 2 period – classical &  Modem

Classical theories

  • Henry Maine in his “Ancient law’ (1861)
    • “Patriarchial theory” – sons of common father lived together giving rise to extended ties of kinship →  This extended Patriarchal family is known as unilineal development. → allowed Jural stability & endurance
  • McLennan & Morgan : human society fundamentally promiscous → led to matrilinity due to mother child bond. Patrilinity much later with intro. of mlage & legal paternity.
    • Both stressed on importance of in exogamy in clan
    • Thus classical theories argued on 2 aspects:

Blood(Kinship & Family) V/S soil(Territory/Property)

  • argued which came first within blood also, it was debate on patrilinity Matrilinity.

Modem theories

  • British schlors like W.H.R. Rivers.
    • for Rivers : Clan, was based on common descent than territory.
    • Reddiff Brown in his study of Austrelia Placed Descent groups at centre.
  • Modem theories showed how – both temtory & descent are imp. ex :
    • Study of Nuer by Evan Pitchard and Tallensi by Meyer fortes →  segmentary lineage & territoriality
    • Fortes in his. “The structure of Unilineal descent Groups” → gave his model of segmentary lineage.
    • Thus showed how social structure would exhibit connectich of descent & territory.

Counter theories

  • Descent theories, though created with much deliberation, faded out by 1960s oweing to misunderstandings & complexities created by schlors.
  • Neo-Malinowskian model, called as Transactional theory was reintroduced.
    • Edmund Leach, based on study of Pul Eliya village (Sri lanka) →  reason behind social action is at level of individual management of rejources for personal gain → Thus contrasted segmentary lineage model.
  • Levi strauss’s alliance model → shifted main arena system in exchange by marriages

Conclusion – In contemporary anthropology, descent theories have no credibility. It however helps in study of kinship & gives idea how earlier societies were made up.

Alliance & Alliance Theory of Claude Levi Strauss

Alliance is kin relation among different groups through m’age. This helps strengthening socioeconomic bonds. while kinship → r/l thr blood or m’age, Alliance → m’age. As a result of alliance different groups come together.

Marriage & alliance – different type of m’age contribute to alliance formation in varying degree

  • Endogamy (within) → consolidates strengthens existing group.
  • Exogamy (outside) → create new r/l with new group which coop, with each other.
  • Preferential M’age – consolidate existing r/l & also Prevent division of loyalty.

Alliance Theory of Claude Levi Strauss

  • advocated it in order to know the structure of society.
  • It is Based on Universal duality of Mind i.e Binary Opposition
  • Postulates/Explantation
  1. Acc to him, Exchange was the first principle of alliance which emerged in human society.
  2. He said there are three basic principles of exchange
    1. E of Goods & Services
    2. E of Ideas
    3. E of Human
  3. Every group had similar type of goods & service & ideas
    • So exchange of humans was practiced
  4. Acc to him,  primitive societies was patrilineal. And has noting to exchange except women 
  5. Types of Exchange
    1. Restricted or Reciprocal Exchange
      • found in societies with dual organisation such as Moities
      • Direct transaction b/w two groups
      • Each group → wife giver & receiver in same generation ie. Symmetrical
      • Involves Bilateral Cross Cousin M’age
    2. Generalised or Asymmetrical Exchange
      • In society where tow or more groups exist.
      • Indirect form of exchange
      • Wife giver & wife taker are not same
      • Types
        1. Continuous Exchange
          • Flow of woman in one direction in all generation
          • E.g Matrilineal cross cousins m’age in patrilineal society
          • One type of exchange
          • Continuous exchange puts long cycle known as “Circulatory Connubium” by Strauss
        2. Discontinuous Exchange
          • exchange of woman not in immediate generation but in next generation
          • Eg – Patrilineal Cross Cousin M’age in Patrilineal Society
          • More integrative than restricted exchange as within fixed no of groups. 

Claude Levi Strauss’s Solidarity Theory

  • about widespread occurrence of matrilineal cross cousin m’age. (Open Exchange)
  • Why → Estd relationship b/w several groups in Connubial Cycle → promote integration b/w diff groups

Acc to Strauss – Alliance dominates social structure & provides identity to society.

Criticism

  • Descent theorists – Decent, not alliance is basis of social structure. why decent rules are only specified exchange of patrilineal category of Spouse. women ex. not present in matrilineal solety.
  • Schneider & Homans (sentiment hypothesis)
    • distribution of JORAL AUTHORITY determines choice of one’s wife
    • Thus, patrilineal → Jural authority with father & also with father’s sister.
    • mother’s bro: affectionate r/l with ego.
    • Thus ego prefers his daughter.
  • Rose and Reid– Demographic hypothesis
    • woman → marry & reproduce earlier than brother.
    • her children older than brother’s, child.
    • thus Mama’s daughter → younger & appropriate age.
  • R. Needham -criticised strauss’s structural model as mediating concept b/w reciprocity & exchange.
    • Needham tried to make clear distinction beth prescriptive & preferential rules of mlage.
  • Louis Dumont – worlds like cross cousin m’age are useful in theory, but deceptive in reality.

Functions of Alliance

  • Maintenance of cohesive rein & coop b/w various kin groups
  • continuity & endurance in society.
  • Maintains Kinship rein & createl new thr exogamy.
  • Regulation of m’age.
  • ECO. & Pol. coop. during emergency.
  • Neutralisation of tension due to wife exchange.

Conclusion :

  • Both alliance & descent maintain social structure. Descent relationship is permanent whereas Alliance are not permanent.
  • both descent & alliance theories are obsolete in utility now, They unanswered questions of universal kinship structures due to which their utility shrinks in contemporary Anthropology.