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3.0: Economic Organisation

Economic Anthropology : Meaning, Scope & Relevance

Economic Anthropology deals with simple societies with ‘primitive economics’ (principles that that govern economic) in simple societies.

  • it do cross cultural comparative studies of economic systems of simple societies
  • It is inter-disciplinary Approach as it study, measure & analyses economic activists or life of man in his socio-cultural framework.

Meaning of Economic Anthropology & Modern Economics

  • Economics – deals with supply demand, price mechanism, capital or stock market
    • Concerned with individualised societies
    • Doesn’t study economic activities wrt other institutions of society.
    • Thus part study & becomes Abstract science 
  • Economic Anthropology – studies economic aspect of society in r/l with culture, kinship, value system etc. e.g Potlach
    • Interdisciplinary Approach → makes it Frontier Science
    • Studies economic system as integral part of Cultural matrix
    • It is  fusion of anthropological variable of culture & economics → thus Holistic study – study of economic behaviour of man in totality.
    • Compare simple economic system with others to bring out generalisation about economic behaviour

Scope of Economic Anthropology

  • it is concerned with all the variety of economic arrangements developed by human kind in different times & places. Manning Nash’s view were also in line with this.
  • Traditionally, it is more concerned with economic org of simple societies. → which is embeded cultural matrix . Or social framework of economic activity
  • It also study r/l b/w economy & other institution.
  • Classification of societies – food G&H, pastoralist, horticulturist & agriculturist
  • Production, distribution & consumption pattern are studied. Exchange b/w dif org are also studied.
  • It study role of tribal market in social life.
  • Contemporary trends in it are centered  on change in economic behaviour as a part of culture.
    • Also cultural change due to contact with modern societies
      • Introduction of money. → e changing to meant new requirements
    • In it main focus on food procurement & r/l aspect of material culture, political regime & kinship.

Evolution & Example – Important Contribution of Anthropologists 

  • It owes its evolution to the anthropologist, who in an attempt to study diverse features of mankind, started doing so in the economic affairs of man.
  • Malinowski in 1922 – in Tobriand Islander first time attempted to explain concept of material culture of primitive society
    • Earlier anthropologist never concerned about it  → Herskovitz called this failure extraordinary
  • Good Fellow mang Bantus for first time
  • Raymond Firth’s study of Tikopia Economies → tired to generalise behaviour of simple societies
  • Dalton & Bohanan – studied the impact of colonisation on various tribal economies in Africa e.g Bushang, Nandi, Nope, Lela
  • Vidyarthi – gave a/c of Maler economy which revolves around hill cultivation

Relevance

  • Generalisation – cultural belief affect economic behaviour e.g Kogi Indians have scarcity of  land but don’t cultivate on hills terraces since soul of ancestors are believed to live there.
  • Study of tribal economy to ensure smooth integration with national & world economy.
  • economic behaviour  is in imp constituent of the community life & plays a deciding role in formation of culture & social str of society. E.g Birhor – Hunter gatherer → can’t toil soil as mother & thus can’t use axe for agri.
  • As economies are integrated → so their understanding can offer benefit to economic planner for practical utility.

Conclusion – E.A deals with economic behaviour of man in holistic manner. In doing so, it generates universal laws of economic behaviour which are having many practical purposes.

Formalist & Substantivist Debate

Economic Anthropology deals with primitive Economics of simple societies within it’s socio-cultural matrix. As simple economy is economy of pre-literate & pre-industrialised societies, in which economic activities are integrated with other aspects of social status. Thus diff from modern economy wrt cultural variable. So arises the debate

formalist & substaintivist debate is mainly a debate about how to study economy of simple societies.

  • Origin of Debate – it was originated by Karl Polanyi who borrowed terms from Weber’s formally rationality & substativistic rationality

Thus  based above this discussion emerged 2 schools of thoughts in economic Anthropology: 

  • Formalism:
    • advocated by Raymond firth, Herskowitz, Salisbury & schneider.
    • It believes that economic structure of Simple societies can be studied through Principles of modem economics.
  • Substantivism:
    • Advocated by Sahlin, Polanyi, Bohanan &  Dalton
    • says that economics in simple societies is not pure economics, but a social economics i.e. embeded in social matrix

Apart from those two views, new School of Neo Marxism came & it rejected earlier two views.

Scott cook observes that the debate really development of economic anthropology

Formalist Approach and it’s criticism

Formalist were of view that simple economics can be studied through concept of modern economics:

  • Some of it’s Assumptions were:(i.e modern economy’s principle applies here)
    • Principle of maximisation – Individual pursue utility maximization by choosing between alternative mean
    • Principle of rationality – Individual’s actions are based on information and profit & loss.
    • condition of scarcity of means – Individual lives under scarcity of means with unlimited wants.
  • According to Weber economic relations are dissociated from social relations as social relations sometimes act as constraints for economic gains. Hence finally economic forces overshadow social forces.

Thus, formalist were of view that primitive man had formal rationality & thus  neoclassical model is universally applicable

criticism

  • Every ecomic action does not have economic motive.
    • Example – Kula system of western pacific islanders is system of exchange supported by complete set of rituals and dominated by Values.
    • In all steps of kula, as explained by Malinowski, social roles scores over economic roles. Thus, modem economics may see the system as uneconomic, but it strengthens social bond between islanders which increases their survival.
  • Principle of profit maximization is not universally applicable.
    • Ex – kuikura tribe of Amazon Studied by Carneiro. He found that tribe people only work for 3.5 hours, rest of time they enjoy.
      • He analysed that even if they work 1/2 hour more, they can become affluent. But they don’t as their culture lacks sense of competition.
    • Potlatch
    • Prohibition on land cultivation in Kogi Indians
  • Opposition to principle of Rationality
    • For Tribal rationality demands maintenance of social relations.
    • Sahalin says that money is to West what kinship is to rest.
  • Opposition to Demand & Supply Principle
    • Exchange of production b/w coastal fishermen & inland cultivators of Africa doesn’t follow this principle.
  • Dalton’s study of African  economic system– Observed that though interacting with formal economic system, but not totally assimilated.
  • Frank knight → criticised Herkycowitz saying that  Hersko with buying and stelling is America business >
  • Bohannan –  Tivi, Nigenigi’s different spheres of exchange 

Substantivism Approach & it’s Criticism 

Proposed by Polanyi in his “Economy as Instituted process ” substantivism is based on following premises:

  • Embeddedness– economy is embedded in Social matrix
  • Substantive production i.e. production for use in simple society.
  • No Utility maximization – Individual choice based on social relation, cultural value.
    • example – Potlach in Kiwattul, Samoa of west Pacific where valuables are destroyed for elevating social status
  • Simple economics is based on redistribution and reciprocity
  • Economic behaviour is influenced by Social obligations.

Criticism

  • Prattis – strict distinction b/w west & nonwest economies is problematic Some generalisation can be made.
  • Redistribution can happen in west also. eg-socialist state.
  • Rational behaviour & complex economic choices can be observed in peasants (plattner)

Thus, we can say that formalist approach tries to apply “profit & loss’ principle in simple economics, but fails. while, substantivist explains economic institutions of Simple economics as well as of economics emerging due to ethnicity, etc.

But, debate is now outdated as we do not compare different disciplines, but follow interdisciplinary approach. Ended in Stalmate, further giving rise to marxist & feminist approach.

F-S debate as “Golden Rule : Elmon service (1987) → F&S take of 8 bifurcation: – Thus it’s golden rule, bifurcation’s are

  • Positivism V/s Humanism
  • comparative method V/s Holism
  • Generalisation V/s Particularism
  • Evolution V/s reality.

Culturalism

To understand simple economy , its Extension of substantivism with stronger emphasis on cultural constructivism,

  • local understanding
  • Socio-economic dynamics.

Premises

  • Stephen Gudeman : central processes of making  livelihood is culturally constructed.
  • Modes of livelihood & related economic concepts (exchange, money) be analyzed thr local’s way of understanding them. → local model
  • peoples own economic construction’
    • people’s own conceptualizations of economics & various aspects.
    • Rejects  formalist notion of universal Economic person
  • criticises substantivism for imposing universal model on all preindustrial Society.
    • Any derivational universal model will be ethnocentric & tauto logical.

Case study – Gudeman‘s study of peasant community in Panama → “exchange of equivalent” → Not for making profit.

  • exchange value defined by cost of production.

Criticism

  • Marxist : Too idealistic in notion of social constructions & too weak in analysis of social constraints.
  • Globalisation :  local economies  integrating with global → influence of western capital economies
  • blurring of distinction beth local & global discourses.
  • Universal models are useful upto certain extent.

Neo Marxists Approach

  • Proposed by Goddlier, Terry & Friedman to study Economic structure of simple societies with help of Marx’s concept of production & Goddlier’s concept of social & economic formation.
    • They rejected both formalism & substantivism
  • It adopts modified version of Marxism & says that there are multiple models of production in society under dominance of one mode of production. Such articulated assemblage of modes of production is c/l as economic & social formation by Goodlier.

Conclusion :

  • Tribal Societies are not static as they are interacting with outside world & adopting several features of modern economy. So in their economy there is existence of serval modes of production simultaneously.
  • only formalism or only substantivism can’t be solely applied to tribal economy. Thus Tribal economy is dynamic, according to the need we should apply the appropriate approach to its study. 

Different Types of Exchange in Primitive Culture

In Economic anthropology, Substantivist school talks about various exchanges. Karl Polanyi (Hungarian economic historian, anthropologist) in his “The Great Transformation” describe three economic systems existed before market economy – Redistribution, Reciprocity & House-holding

Why exchange is seen as a fundamental principle for society to form : – if everyone was self-sufficient, there would be no need for relationships.

Following are different types of exchange in primitive communities are

Reciprocity

As Defined by Polanyi – Reciprocity is exchange of good  b/w people who are bound in non market, non hierarchical/egalitarian relation to one another. It is commonly found in tribal societies.

Meaning of Reciprocity (Principle of Mutuality)

  • Principle of direct exchange b/w two individual.
  • Principle of exchange b/w those who share similar position in society & related to each other by bond of kinship & marriage.
  • Gift exchange b/w individuals, complementary to natural bond leading to endurance of social relationship.
    • Has moral & mechanical implications
  • Exchange in Non market, non hierarchical relation with one another.
  • Eg. gift exchange during childbirth at sister’s house in Bemba community

Characteristics of society with reciprocity

  • simple technology
  • No economic surplus
  • Structurally symmetric relations
  • Parties are either independent from or equal to one anther in wealth, social status & power.

Classification

Marshall Sahlin in his “Stone Age Economic (1972) classified it into reciprocity based on emotion or kin distance & proximity

  • Generalised Reciprocity :
    • Thus generalised reciprocity is between those who have a close and emotional relationship, where there are no calculations involved, like those between members of a family or any primary group like a group of friends or a foraging band. Gift giving is a kind of generalised exchange.
    • Altruistic transaction
    • Positive emotional expects b/w partners exist among family members or close kins of extended web of kinship
    • Involves gift giving w/o any immediate or planned return ; rather one may not expect any return
      • Though recipient is understood to return at undefined time & value else giver will stop reciprocity.
    • Material aspect less imp than social aspect
    • E.g Philanthropy, sharing, hunt & hospitality.
  • Balanced Reciprocity
    • Balanced reciprocity is where there is a careful comparison of the value of the items exchanged, like when people exchange one item for another, either through barter or by using a generalised medium of exchange. In many societies, some item like cowries, pigs or bananas are used as medium of exchange.
    • Here is one emotionally indifferent with others. Among those who are Just acquiescent with each other.
    • immediate reciprocation obligation to return. one way flow not tolerated.
    • Social relations ;  less personal & more economic
    • e.g- gift giving ceremony in case of blood feuds in Ashanti tribes.
    • functions,
      • Giving up hostility for mutual benefit
      • formal friendship
      • group alliance
      • peace keeping
      • m’age transaction
      • kulla exchange.
    • Could be seen in many type of agriculturist tribes in India like Munda Oranon, Ho & Kharis
  • Negative Reciprocity
    • It involves trying to get something for nothing for example balancing of power against goods; like when tribute is made to a chief or offerings are made to a shaman or even to a deity. Here the goods are exchanged for a favour or as recognition of the superiority of the other person. In modern society one can compare it with the gift that one makes to one’s boss.
    • involves emotional hatred, b/w antagonistic persons or tribes
    • use of force & compulsion.
    • material gain most imp.
    • e.g- cattle raid, wife raid, stealing.

Factors Influencing Reciprocity

  • Kinship – generalised reciprocity
  • Social Rank & Prestige – b/w person with high & low ranks → generalised
    • E.g Polynesian chief → immense obligations to people
    • Tikopia → chief generosity is prerogative of office
  • Relative wealth
    • Eskimos – give away all the hunt
  • Type of goods Involved

Criticism of Shalin’s Model

  • Tim Ingold : Not appropriate model – as considered emotion & kin distance for classifying reciprocity
  • Acc to him – Principle of sharing & demand are two variables, but both are included in the circle of positive reciprocity which is not possible to give same value to types of exchanges
    • Only sharing in Family & only demand at periphery not possible
    • At family → both sharing & demand & at periphery → both barter (+ve) & theft (-ve) are found

Conclusion : Hence Sahlins is not exclusive one in explaining the system of reciprocity. However reciprocity exits at all level. 

Redistribution

Polanyi defined it as a specific form of exchange involving systematic movement  of goods towards administrative system & their reallotment by authorities at centre.

  • I.e collection of goods by chief & their distribution for various purposes. Also in some tribal societies, the chief would give a feast out of the tribute that is given to him. 
  • type of exchange in both simple & modem societies
  • In India, traditional Jajmani system was a form of redistribution. Ex In an agricultural village, a portion of the grain is collected from all cultivating households and then given to the various non-cultivating households that perform various functions in the village, like to the Brahmin, the leatherworker, the barber and various mother crafts persons and service providers.

Meaning

  • Pooling transaction by central authorities
  • b/w individual of higher & lower hierarchal structure →  Chieftmanship.
  • Matter of custom, law or special responsibility, share diff. rights & obligation.
    • Leader collect tribute from follower & rights over their service
    • huge responsibility to protect & provide support to followers
  • Such state are called complex startes.

Characteristics of society showing Redistribution

  • social stratification
  • Minority rule over majority
  • System of ranking & stratification
  • Enough surplus
  • Economies of marginal cultivators
  • With recognition of central source of authority
  • In the redistributive system, the goods are accumulated but not used by any one person; they are again given away and the person who gives them gets prestige and position in return.

Examples

  • Tobriand Islanders – Malinowski :
    • king act as tribal banker , collect tax & tributes
    • Responsible for giving awards & ceremonial feast c/l Sagali
  • Sawai of New Guinea
    • Chief, c/l Muni, receive labour from commoners
    • In turn, provide protection to commoners
  • Rio Grande Pueblo (Mexico)
    • Chief, c/l Caccique, receive work from commoners in agri field, + max share of communal hunting
    • Redistribute awards & games
  • Proja tribe in India, Odisha
    • Chief, c/l Naik, with help of commoners perform communal hunting, c/l Beto, in chait month.
  • Gond (central India)
    • Local tribal pay taxes to Gond king
    • King provide socio-cultural, civil amenities + security
  • Modern State –
    • Citizen pay tax to state authority
    • State provide basic amenities to the people

Conclusion – Thus redistribution found in both tribal & modern societies. However it is found in the societies where notion of hierarchy prevails.

  • although there are lot of differences b/w reciprocity & redistribution types of exchange, they are both integrative principles of exchange of non-market economies. Both are not opposed to each other. Both of them may coexist, one of them being predominant.

Barter

Exchange of commodities with another having utilitarian value in absence of medium of exchange

Characteristics of barter

  • Minimum degree of specialisation → need of exchange
  • Absence of Medium of exchange.
  • principal involved in barter is  bargaining.
  • with or w/o market.

Types of Barter

  1. Silent Barter
    • Found in : Sinhali (agricultural villagers) & veddas (Forest dwellers H&G) of srilanka.
  • when vedda → require good → come to village large amt of forest product in front of household.” sinhali puts some other good in that Place →  veddas come other day & Pick it up.
  • w/o linguistic communication, but silent bargaining exists
  • Other example : Chukches of Siberia & Alaskan
  • Open Barter
    • In Nilgiri, in T.N, homes → 4 communities i.e Toda (Pastoral), Kurumba (Artisan), Badaga (Agriculture) & Kota (medicine man)
    • Linguistic communication & open bargaining b/w them → c/l Open barter

Functions of Barter

  • Ensures social integration as involves interaction
  • However, may act as divisive force as it involves bargaining principle

Conclusion : Thus barter is a non-ceremonial exchange of goods & services. It is mainly economic in nature & is found mainly in simple societies. 

Tribal Market / Market Exchange

Tribal market is actual sites wherein goods change  by sale & purchase, not always done thr money as medium of ex. In market exchange goods are circulated by evaluating them against a common denominator. In pre-industrial societies, the market was synonymous with a place, a market place, a designated spot.

  • It is price setting mechanism & hands & is characterized by bargaining behaviour.
  • in simple society, more social funn than economic Thus Peripheral Market
  • simple so may have market & may or may not have market principle.
  • Acc to Karl Polanyi, two fundamental variables should be taken into a/c while analysis market : Market Place & Market Principal
    • Exchange of goods in Market place is regulated market principal that is demand & supply.
    • In simple society Market principal is not present all the time but in modern present always 

Classification of society on basis of market place

  • Market less – e.g Band
  • Market e.g Tribal
  • Market Principal + Place e.g Modern

Classification on medium of exchange.

  • Market place involves medium in any form (notes, coins or any other kinds) E.g
    • N. American Indian → Blanket
    • Ashanti → Wooden Weight
    • Tiv (Africa) → Iron Rod
  • types
    • Barter (No medium)
    • No Std medium of ex ( tribal) neither pure barter nor pure monetised
    • monetised economy (modern society)

Features of Market

Dalton & Bohannan →  study of markets in Africa (simple/tribal society) & USA (modern society) → acc to them stand in pure opposition. Features are following

Economic

  • pheripheral market to both principle of production & consumption. in S.S (central in USA)
  • If eliminated, no large disturbance In Social structure (in USA lead to collapse)
  • Factors of production  never brought in market. (Both
    • Masai tribe (of E. Africa) →  cattle never in market.
  • Part time specialisation in S.S
    • Raymond Firth →  due to part time spe more goods than services in tribal market
  • Special rule regarding entry
    • eg. Dohomy tribes → woman → seller | mens → buyer But cattle market →  monopolised by men & woman entry is taboo.
  • specific rule of inauguration
    • unless chief or priest perform ritual.
    • Africa →  Market not day to day activity.
      • some settle downs when chief‘s daughters wedding.
  • Some market →  fixed internal, fixed space
    • ‘market ring’ in Ibo of Nigera.

Non economic feature

  • Communication – social integration
    • E. African tribe : provide woman a opportunity to meet members of natal lineage.
    • celebration of ritual, any Imp announcement by king.
  • Political → controlling market place = controling people.
  • Judicial →  legal & Judicial function (imp Judgements are given here)
  • Religious → Tiv →  market around shrine.
    • sometimes, market →  centre of celebration
  • conflict resolution
    • Surjeet sinna study on markets in W.B.
  • Marriage
    • partners are selected
    • E.g Bhil (M.P) → m’age by capture “Bhagoria”
  • Entertainment
    • eg w. Africa →  ‘Beer day’

Conclusion –  market to be understood by socio-cultural category, not economic alone. Market  embedded in social matrix.

Ceremonial Exchange

Exchange is give & take of goods & services. However Ceremonial exchange is also c/l as ritualised gift giving is defined as system of exchange, involving non commercial items, supported by complete set of rituals & dominated by values & ideologies of that particular society.

Features of Ceremonial Exchange

  • Involves exchange of non-utilitarian goods have only ceremonial value.
  • There is No bargaining  ↠  Strengthens social relations
  • No material benefit to individual giving gift ↠  rather indebtedness.

Examples

  • exchange of goods/gifts in wedding
  • Bemba community → ex of gift at childbirth in sister’s house
  • Funerary gifts in west Africa
  • Gifts given to priests & religious functionaries
  • Kula exchange

Conclusion – having on ritualistic or religious value, it involves non utilitarian goods w/o bargaining which strengthens social relations. 

Kula Exchange

kula exchange → special type of ceremonial exchange esta a trade relations  among alien people residing in group of Pacific Islands.

  • classic ex. of reciprocity which Invoves circulating exchange of valuables.
  • reported by Malinowski in his book “Argonaunts of western Pacific” (1922) among Tobriand Islanders of New Guinea.
    • regarded it as Idiom of their existence as regulates  – culture & economy.

Types of Kula

  • Inter – Island kula
  • Island kula
  • Inter – Island kula is prerogative of males only but in island kula both male & female can find kula partner

Setting of kula exchange

  • Pacific polynesian Islands are arranged in ring fashion. Islander call themselves “Bajowans‘ → special r/l with outside community of other Island called “Dobu”
  • Areas of vast Islands including E. New Guinea, Woodlark Island, Trobriand Archipelago.
  • Two objects (having high value but  no practical use)
    • Mwali (armbrand)
    • Soulavo (shell disc necklace) soulavo ow.

Kula Voyage

  • No temporary : definite & complex rules, definite route & specific time
  • Each male →  have kulla parther on other island
    • Depart on boat filled with objects to vist island.
    • At time of departure, magic is performed &  Taboo is observed.
  • kula principle : once in kula, always in kula.
  • kula items are exchanged @ time of departure.
  • kula partners of 2 types
    • Receive mwali & give soulavo
    • Receive soulavo & give mwali.
  • only one form of  life long r/l b/w diff. communities, chiefs having more kula rein with younger men.
  • Generally object takes 10 yrs to complete cycle.
    • one allowed to keep kula object only for 2 years.
    • If violates, he have to face gossip & ridicule.
  • Gimwali →  After exchange of kula →  utilitarian items with commercial Functions exchange of with non kula members.
    • There is no Gimwali with kula members

Functions of Kula

  • expresses value of generosity & honour
  • governs social & economic r/l
  • binds people in no. of r/l. commoners can have r/l with kings
  • at time of contingency, kula partners helps each other.
  • Reinforce Social solidarity & social integration.
  • there is esteem of pilgrimage to kula vogage..

Conclusion : The ceremonial exchange promoting political & economic activities among Pacific islanders.

Potlach

It is an example of ceremonial exchange among tribes such as Kwakiaul Indians of  N. america.

  • it is defined as Public demo of distribution & callous destruction of wealth.
  • also referred to as feast associated with ceremonial occasions in which wealth is distributed by chief to people.
  • Studied & explained by franz Boas in his “The kwaliul Text” (1965) 

Explanation

  • kwakititl Indians of British Columbia
    • imp public ceremony for announcement of significant events or claiming hierarchial names, rights & previlegel.
    • Accompanied by giving gifts to all guests from host
    • guest  →  witness & later validates host’s claim.
  • Principle involved in it – are competitive spirit & prestige competitiveness.
  • Various types – among Haidas acc to diff occasions such as
    • celebration pottach– birth, mage
    • funeral potlach– death
    • face saving pottach– birth of deformed child, capsizing of cance.
    • Rivalry or vengeance potlach.

How potlach is held

  • Public event, size of gathering determines host’s prestige & affluence.
  • host: traces his line of descent & rights to claim
    • No announcement w/o feasting & distribution of gifts.
  • Gifts: as per tribal Imp & prestige of guest.
  • In some cases destruction of property to show
    • wealth
    • rank
    • generosity
    • self-esteem.
  • each high ranking guest will try to return  equal or even more.
  • gifts include – blanket, boats, flour, fish oil , most valuable (copper)
  • Potlach can last for several days, Speechs, songs, cances mixed with feasting.

Insults or Rivalry

  • Potlach : marked by exacting std. of etiquette & behaviour.
    • any impropriety → brings shame, indignity to host.
  • sometimes deliberate Insuts of guest by throwing him gift, spilling oil on him offended guest retaliate by destroying his own property
  • If mistakenly offends →  guest restores Pride by giving host a reprimand gift.
    • embarassment to host.
  • Rivalries can develop b/w two men Competing for same name or previlege..
    • competition by destroying own wealth or gluing broken sheet of copper to rival.
    • witnesses act as judge & declares victors.

significance

  • Stuart Piddocke →  practice b/c of Scarcity of surplus, has pro-survival and pro- subsistent functions.
  • Marwin Hamis – potlatch as Safety valve in malnutrition.
  • shows that tribal economy not follow modern economic principles
    • Profit maximum
    • demand & Supply
    • Principle of rationality.
  • Redistribution function
    • Strengthens social bond & thus served as social .
  • Described as Irrational behaviour.
    • Banned in Canada in 1884-later lifted.
  • esta. political influence & Social position.
  • principle of reciprocity.

Conclusion : Thus showing that tribal economy doesn’t follow modern economic principals such as profit maximisation, demand-supply & but based on Irrationality & principle of redprocity, It can be infered that tribal economy is embeded in social matrix.

Principles Governing Production, Distribution & Exchange / Consumption

Anthropologist based on, subsistence technology(St), classified tribal societies into two broad categories

  • Food – Collection Economy – based on all form of St of – food getting from natural resource.
    • Food Gathering economy – of gathering edible fruits & vegi & hunting
    • Hunting – Fishing economy  – of huting as well as fishing (to supplement diet)
  • Food – Production Economy – of domestication of plants & animals ; includes subtypes
    • Pastoral Economy – of D. Of animals such as 🐄, 🐃, 🐪,🐎 & reindeer etc 
    • Horticultural Economy – of cultivating the garden by using hoe or digging stick
    • Agricultural Economy – of cultivation using plough, aka economy based on plough cultivation

Evolution of Economies

Archeological evidence suggests that human deepened primarily on vegetable foods, supplementing their diets with other products, Throughout most human history humans were food-gatheres. It is oldest mode of human existence.

The revolutionary change from food gathering to food production brought a Major change in the relationships b/w humans & their natural resources.  For first time humans were augment the productivity of environment → to gain some degree of control over thir food security.

However, the course (horticulture, pastoral & agriculture) followed by different human societies was by no means uniform. But all started from FC & evolved to FP.

Hunting & Gathering Economy

Introduction – H&G is subsistence activity, which is oldest mode of human existence & ensure survival with low level of tech

  • H&G economy is based on subsistence technology of getting food from natural env by gathering & hunting.
  • Various H&G societies, across the wold practice production, distribution & consumption by virtue of very straight forward principles. These  are described below with examples

Examples – spread world over but very small in no.

  • India -Ex – Sentilese, Andamanese, Onges  Jarawa in Andamnas
    • Irula, Kadar, Chenchu, Paliyan, Iruka, Panyan, Yanadi & Kurumba
  • World – Bushman & Pygmies (Kalahari, Africa) Eskimo (North America) , Austrelianon aborigine,

Socio-Cultural Features (Determining Features)

  • Characterised by Nomadism & semi-nomadism – b/c search of food
  • Economy Support – Small population (30-40) living in network of extended families
  • Kinship → fountainhead of all social activities → very strong
  • Political system – very simple i.e no specialised agency ; elders solves disputes
    • FG economy favour ; informal political leadership ; general tone always democratic
  • Religion & Magic – belief in spirit & ghosts ; they are mainly
  • Marriage – exogamous
  • Characterised by simple economic resource namely tech, DoL, land ownership & capital.

Principles Governing Production

  • Technology
    • Lowest level → digging stick & gathering basket, simple tools to trap animals, death pits, snares
      • For huting – bow & arrow ; spear is fairly common.
      • In some tribes of Africa, US & Canada – use of spear thrower & missiles is also evidence.
    • About tools
      • Some Ⓟ says – rudimentary
      • Some Ⓟ says – innovative e.g Bushman → boomerang 🪃(in Australia – returnable & non returnable) fishing hook 🪝
    • Strong social network compensate for primitive  tech
  • Division of labour – based on Age & sex ; No specialisation
    • Women & Child – gathering in parties ;  🚫  from huting ; sometime do small hunts
    • Adult male – hunting (both Individual & collective hunts
    • Dependency on natural vegetation & wildlife for food.
      • Thus even if 2/3rd production by ♀ but still patrilineality & Patri locality
    • Move → from one place to other – nomadism
  • Mode of Hunting
    • Depending on season → micro or Marco bands
      • Decides collective (mainly)  or individual huting (during scarcity) 
    • E.g Blackfoot Indians (American) – have two type of co-op ; during
      • Summer → Bison is available in plenty ; collective hunting
        • Tribal patrolling to prevent individual huting
      • Winter – Scarcity  → hunting in individual or in small divided groups
  • Group Formation
    • L.R Binford differentiated the settlement of H&G into two types
      • Forgers – return on same day after hunting
        • Food not stoved, changes position frequently
        • In tropical region
      • Collectors – specialised organised task groups
        • Resource away from camp
        • Thus locate camp near one resource & send task force to other which comes back after few days with large food

Principle Governing Distribution

  • Ownership of Resource
    • No individual ownership of natural resources + no permanent of residence = No concept of ownership
    • Although, by convention within different local groups , can determine hunt & gather area
    • Ex- Bushmen of Kalahair, camps are located to near water holes & exploit area in one way round trip walk.
  • Distribution of Resource
    • Egalitarian group → equal share on food of all
  • No Trade – as absence of surplus
    • Neither surplus, nor any reserve & trade
    • A few like Veddas of Ceylon practice silent trade, dumb barter or covert exchange.

Principles Governing Consumption

  • Routinised consumption
    • No storage, excess food go waste ; can called as Forest to mount existence
    • E.g – Bushman : Winter → wastage of food (roten) ; Summer → die in starvation
    • Most have special techniques & process for preserving Wild food & meat drived from game for short intervals
  • Ceremonial Consumption
    • Not found in groups b/c can’t accumulate surplus & scarcity of resource.
  • Survival Strategy
    • Some Ⓟ say → No concept of leisure
    • But Marshal Sahlin in his “Stone Age Economics” → points out that they are affluent societies → have concept of leisure.

Conclusion – Socio-economic principles decides this principles. Thus can be said that economy of H&G is embeded in social matrix.

Present Status (write this same point in every type)

  • Many anthropologist show that → contemporary H&G don’t have H&G history, but are forced due to marginalisation, Industrialisation & conflict
  • Ex – Santineses, Pila Nguru (W. Austrelia) Savana Pune of Venezuela 🇻🇪

Hunting-Fishing Economy

  • H&F is subsistence activity
  • Historically it is 2nd Oldest type of economy, emerged about 11,000 years ago
  • Limited only those located  near sea coast, lake, riverine environment

Explanation

  • For these societies, fish → object of chase
    • Used tools → Spear, Harpoon, Arrow & Trap Fish ; Boomerang 🪃 in Bushman
    • Fishing provide more plenty food than H&G societies
  • Also kill land animals, thus hunters too
  • H&F society – simple H&G society but adapted to aquatic environment

Example

  • N. America – living on North Pacific coast – Blackfoot, Kwakiutl, Braffinland, Alaska & Copper Eskimos,
  • S. America– Alaculuf, the chono & Yahgan or Yaghen Red Indians living on coastline of Chile
  • Africa – In Dahomey, Ivory Coast, West coast
  • Polynesia & Micronesia

Socio-Cultural Characteristics

  • Sedentary life ; unlike H&G who are force to be nomadic, these live in permanent settlement
  • Population – higher population density
  • Economy – Larger self sufficiency (thus supporting larger sedentary population) → sedentary village)
    • Trade
  • Political – Formal political leadership – these present 3 distinct socio-political org
    1. Org of work parties not democratic – under leader
    2. Distribution not equal – leader gets more
    3. Politico-economic inequalities have build up a hierarchy of formal leaders for maintaining the village & tribal solidarity
  • Society – hierarchy exist with social groupings
  • By surplus production & trade ; plenty of food & protein → become available for trade.

Principles Governing Production

  • Technology
    • Elaborating technology
    • Eskimos – canoes, kayas, igloos, harpoons, spear thrower, some nets
    • Red Indians – canoes, harpoons, spear, nets, hooks , traps
  • Division of Labour – based on Age, sex, specialisation
    • Men → fishing, land hunt
    • Women – gathering, veges, crabs, turtle eggs
    • Both → processing, curing, storing the fish
    • Some men – were partially engaged in specialisation
      • Wood working
      • Canoe building
      • Basket making
  • Group Formation
    • More sedentary life → stable & residential groups
  • Mode of hunting – black foot – Sumer & winter

Principles Governing Distribution

  • Ownership
    • Distribution
      • Non Egalitarian
      • Not Equal – Chief gets – Major share
  • Surplus Production – storage of fish → additional subsistence → trade

Principles Governing Consumption

  • Storage of fishing – dried & smoked
  • Routinized Consumption – Part is consumed immediately
  • Ceremonial Consumption – Possible due to
    • Ability to storage
    • Ability of diverse resources
    • E.g Potlach in Kwakiutl

Conclusion – Thus, sedentary life leads to stabilisation in economy leading to increased surplus, trade & quest for prestige. This shows that tribal economy is embed in social matrix.

Current Relevance

Swiddening : Shifting Cultivation

Introduction – It is the age old Institution among the Indian tribes its origins goes back to Neolithic times 8k-10k year ago. Unlike conventional settled cultivation, it refers to technique of rotational farming, in which land is cleared (normally by fire 🔥) & then left to regenerate after a few years. 

Explanation

  • This in principle mean cultivating a plot of land for a temporary period & then leave it fallow.
  • Under this system bushes & trees are slashed and burnt.
  • Thereafter seeds are scattered on the ashes & the rest is left to nature.
  • Sowing can be done for 2 or more session but not beyond this, fertility of social is exhausted → another plot

Shift cultivation is k/n by different regional name & names by tribes in India

  • Jhum – in tribes of AS, ML, TP, MZ, AR (Mainly Naga)
  • Bewar or Dahya – MP ( The Baiga)
  • Podu in AP (The Khond)
  • Roman or Bringal in North OD
  • Penda ; by Maria of Bastar
  • The Bhuiya distinguish two form of it, Dahi & Koman

Area of Shift Cultivation & Tribes Involved :

  • Africa, Asia & New World – Peruvian Amazon, Karen Swidden farms of Thailand, The Wanniyala Aetto of Sri Lanka
  • India – Odisha, Assam, MP, JH, BH, North East India
    • tribes living in the hilly areas of AS, AR, ML, MZ, MN, NL & TP are dependent on shifting cultivation (Jhuming). – Lohta, Angami Naga, Khasi & Kuki
    • Saora & Juanga of OD,  Asur (of BH) , Gond, Baiga, Munda, of MP ; Korwa of UP – Apart from shifting cultivation, these tribes are also engaged in cottage industries..
    • THOUGH shifting cultivation has been quite widespread in the above mentioned regions and it is a way of life with its practitioners but the only people who have exalted it into a regular cult are the Baigas of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.

Mythological Explanation : Tribal folk has it for continuation of this practice; Acc to their mythology, they were ordered by bhagwan to practise this type of cultivation. This legend grew out of the concept of mother earth and the mother earth should not be tortured through the dagger of plough. Since the shifting cultivation does not require any ploughing, the mother earth blesses the Baiga for the respect shown to her. They also believe that adoption of plough cultivation shall bring misery.

Features

  • Interesting aspect – they themselves inhabit permanent villages in a more or less settled way but keep on changing the plot of land for procuring food grains
  • Till recently confined their agri pursuit to producing only food grains & cereals. Now even cash crops
    • AS, ML & NL – cotton as cash crop while maize, vegetable for domestic consumption
    • Orishas’s Jungas – oils seeds as cash crops & paddy for them selves
  • Mode of cultivation highly uneconomic due to extremely low yield → poverty & misery , if not stopped → underdevelopment & low socioeconomic level ; but change can’t take place suddenly 
  • Land shortage, ↑ poverty ; govt policy (case study – TR, ML refugee
  • This also in ↓, due to land shortage, ↑ population & govt policy, dissuades the tribes from practising shifting cultivation.

Timing & Process Involved – It consists of clearing the forest slopes, burning the fallen trees and bushes, and broadcasting the seed in the ash covered soil. The rest is left to nature.

  • The operation actually starts just before summer season when the trees and bushes are felled and allowed to be dried by the scorching sun during first half of summer. In the second half, they are set on fire and are allowed to burn to ashes.
  • On the ashes produced by the burning of these trees and bushes, seeds are sown at the onset of the rainy season.
  • No other operations are required, and the crop is reaped when it is ripe after rains.
  • The sowing on the plot may be done for one or more seasons but not beyond this. After that, fertility of the soil is exhausted and the plot is allowed to remain fallow.
  • Another plot of land is cleared and the agricultural operations are transferred to it. Meanwhile trees and bushes continue to grow on the original plot and in a few years time it regains part of its original appearance.

Data –

  • Nearly 10% of tribal population depends on it
  • People of India report by the Anthropological Survey of India reported Ecological degradation has severely curtailed the related traditional occupations for instance shifting cultivation by 18.14 percent.
  • About 6.4 lakh families are involved in the practice of jhum cultivation over an approximate area of one million hectares every year. The area affected by this practice is about 5 million hectares in 15 states of the country.

Merits

  • can done with minimum investment
  • Acc to Korku, Baiga, Korwa & Maria tribals of MP & Nagas of Assam & adjoining areas claim that shifting cultivation is done with simple implements like axe, hoe, digging stick, sickle etc. which they can afford to purchase & repair easily.
  • Unlike Plough Agriculture don’t needs a costly implements,
  • It don’t need regulation of time  except session
  • Don’t need routine work on the field, money & devotion
  • Traditions suit this system of cultivation due to their sedentary, carefree & routine less life. J

Demerits – the problem of shifting cultivation is acute in the states of AP, NE region, Bihar & Orissa. & has been the eye sore of Forest dept

  • Has been characterised as ruinous , waste full & uneconomic
  • Dries up the springs in the hills & negative effect on rainfall
  • Cause soil erosion → flood became alarming annul problem.
  • Destroy valuable & durable forest  & its recourses. Valuable timber has been wastefully lost
  • Acc to some this system also produce laziness & inertia among its practitioners
  • Uneconomic activity & is not capable of supporting even a reasonable std of living
  • It has caused deforestation & as a consequence thereof, soil erosion & floods

Govt Intervention & Measures being taken

  • Now legally prohibited except in few pockets of MP, AP & NE regions ; where it is still practice with permission of competent Authority
  • Astrology is invoked to deal with the problem
  • Fine & prosecution against violators.
  • strategy involves an integrated program of reclamation & dev of land for settlement of Jhumias under regular agriculture, animal husbandry, horticulture and forestry. The problems of Jhum control program are threefold
  • Rehabilitation of shifting cultivators would have to be closely monitored by the Administrative Agencies & there should be a periodical review of the progress at various Levels.

Problems of Jhum Control Program are threefold

  • Rehabilitation of Jhumias
  • Development of their economy
  • Promotion of advanced technology & capital formation in them 

Examples of measures taken

  • Taskforce on shifting cultivation, 1983
    • Taking a perspective plan of 15 years for rehabilitation will require 30000 Rupees per family plus fund allocation- need of 3000 crore.
    • Both long and short term plan.
  • Ministry of Agriculture: Earmarking of 15 crore during 1988-89 for 9 States. Periodical monitoring and review.
  • Resettlement of Jhumias
    • is done away from shifting cultivation, providing cultivable land, agricultural equipments and subsidy, medical and educational facilities, housing etc.
    • Failure of resettlement due to bifurcation of tribals on taking advantage of resettlement, use of new settlement as additional house.

Shortcomings of government strategy

  • poor quality land given for cultivation, failure to release land timely,
  • no supportive measures such as minor irrigation, untimely disbursal of subsidy, no surplus capital,
  • housing inconsistent with their socio-cultural needs (nature man spirit complex disturbed).

Case studies

  • Gond of Andhra Pradesh: Setting two antagonistic segments of tribes in one settlement led to failure of resettlement.
  • Odisha: Resettlement of tribals away from their philosopher and guide i.e. forest- led to disturbance of nature man spirit complex.

Alternative & solution : Suggestion

  • Regulation of Jhum on scientific lines: permitting it where there is no availability of terrace land.
  • Regulation- Experiment- Improvement strategy.
  • Understanding the nature of problem being combination of physical condition of land and social customs and beliefs.
  • Shifting to terrace cultivation.
  • Shifting cultivation has to be changed to settled cultivation by settling of orchids and other plantations by selling these produces in the market.
  • The natural skills of the people have to be improved. Gradually new skills have to be introduce.
  • Resettlement take into a/c their attachment with Forest (Nature man spirit complex)
  • The report of SA&ST Commission, 1961 – given some imp suggestions
    • As total replacements is long term process. Mean time proper course is to regulate it, experiment with it, try other workable alternatives. As it is mixed problem, partly connected with the physical conditions of the land & partly with social customs, traditions & beliefs. Any hurried departure may create complications.
    • Shifting cultivation may be converted into terraced cultivation Wherever the hill slopes permit and the soil is sufficiently deep, the holds out immense possibilities of improvement, and in many places throughout the tribal areas it has already been taken up with enthusiasm.
    • Establishment of agricultural colonies may also be an effective solution to wean away tribals from shifting cultivation to settled cultivation.
      • Some agricultural coionies have already been established in parts of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh where each tribal family was given some cultivable waste land, financial assistance for the construction of houses and for reclamation of the land, bullocks, agricultural implements and seeds.
      • Facilities for communications, drinking water, irrigation, medical aid etc. were also proposed. But the result has not been much encouraging partly due to mis-man agement of the whole scheme and partly due to refusal of the tribal psyche to adjust in lower plains and alien lands.
  • Planning Commission’s Report of the Study Team on TribaL Development Programme, 1969 straight away suggests that steps should be taken to make agriculture more remunerative by encouraging the tribal agriculturists to take to improved methods of agriculture. The following measures may be undertaken for the purpose:
    • Setting up of demonstration farms.
    • Distribution of improved agricultural implements, manures and fertilizers and high yielding varieties of seeds.
    • Providing credit facilities.
  • IMPROVED agricultural implements distributed to tribals should be such as would meet their approval.

As MD Chaturvedi, formerly inspector general of forests, concluded the correct approach to the problem to shifting cultivation lies in accepting it not as a necessary evil, but recognising it as way of life; not condemning it as an evil practice but regarding it as an Agricultural practice evolved as a reflex to the physiographical character of Land. So it must be recognised that change over from shifting can’t take suddenly as woven inextricably.

Pastoralism

Introduction – Pastoralism is a social organisation based on livestock rearing as the primacy economic activity. It came into existence along with horticulture and agriculture but it was taken up as main economic activity when horticulture or agriculture was not feasible. In Central Asia, North Africa, Arabian Peninsula, part of Europe etc. due to insufficient rainfall,mountainous terrain and short growing season, agriculture/horticulture was not feasible. This gave way to livestock rearing.

Explanation- When people breed & rear cattle for commercial purposes & make it their source of livelihood they may be said to be living under pastoral economy.

Examples of Pastoral tribes

  • Nuer, Dinka, Masai of Africa: cattle rearing.
  • Kazak, Kirgiz of Central Asia: herding of camel, horse, sheep and goats.
  • Chuckchee of Russian Siberia- reindeer herding.
  • Toda of India- Buffalo herding.

Characteristics of Pastoral economy

  • both nomadism & sedentariness. Nomadism was done in search of better pastures. Temporary sedentariness- when they get good pasture.
    • Indian pastoralist are us usually lead a settled life & become wanders & nomads only under pressure of changing weather. → settled pastoralist Totally pastoral tribes are few in number in India. Ex – Toda of Nilgiri hills(TN) ,Gujjar, Gaddi & Bakrawal of HP, Bhotia of UK (breeder & traders) , Nageshia of MP, Maldhan of Gj etc
      • Toda’s social & economic Organisation are built around their Buffalos 🐃 (studied by Majumdar )
  • Supports low population density.
  • Small size of communities as compared to fishing and horticulturist societies.
  • Technology is moderately developed. It includes milking equipments, pouches of skin, knives, buckets, leather straps for animals etc.
  • Pastoralism is mainly carried out by men. They herd and milk them. Women are involved in processing of products obtained from animals such as preparation of butter, curd etc.
  • not all the pastoral tribes trade in milk. Some of them rear the cattle like sheep & goat for selling them in the market.
  • It is characterised by dependence on agricultural economy for plant foods very often. Hunting is also done occasionally.
  • Some surplus and trade of dairy products, woollen products, leather products etc.
  • Political- there is part time & full time political leadership.
    • Raiding & warfare are frequent activities & this stimulates the growth of political authority.
    • But within the tribes all adult member participate in decision making

Principles Governing Production

  • Technology
    • Includes several tools, utensils & container besides numerous techniques of stock raising
    • Plates, buckets, buckets, milking stools, bags, sacks, pouches of skins, saddles, made of skin & leather & Calabashes.
    • Decorative meant of cattle’s
    • Branding irons, castration equipment & variety of knives for trimming the tails & ears, for shearing the woll & cutting the meat 🥩
  • Division of labour – based on Age, sex & specialisation
    • Basic economic actives man’s work – herd the animal, milk them
    • Women attend to prepration of curds, butter, cheese & yogurt
    • Little specialisation also
      • Some men may specialise in branding the animals ,
      • Some in trimming the horns & tails
      • Some in offering armed protecting to their caravans
      • Some in welfare activities
  • Group Formation – given the limited resource of their territories, large & dense settlement are impossible ; so due to env small size of pastoral communities
    • Small size of communities as compared to fishing and horticulturist societies.
  • Also partially dependent on the plant food grown by their Agricultural neighbours
    • Tibetans purchase barley, dried fruit, tea
  • Hunting. Is an important secondary source of food for pastorals

Principle Governing Distribution

  • Ownership of Resource
    • resource ownership is governed by specific rules to determine who have rights to watering places & grazing lands,
    • also right to access to land over which they move their herd
  • Trade – Some surplus and trade of dairy products, woollen products, leather products etc.

Principles Governing Consumption

  • Routinized consumption
    • Limited surplus for food supply
  • Ceremonial Consumption

Problems of Pastoral Society

Problems – components – Tribals & Animals & govt Intervention & Development

  • Decrease pastures & sedentaristion have resulted in loss of pastoralism & animal breeding among these tribes. 
  • Impact of international Relations – THE Gujjars of Himachal Pradesh are also prominent pastoralist and they rear cows, buffaloes and sheep for commercial purposes. The Bhotia of Uttarakhand division of Uttar Pradesh are cattle breeders and traders at the same time. They breed yak and jibus and weave woollen pullovers, shawls and blankets and sell them in the cities of the plains. In this way, they are itinerant traders who come down to the plains in winter and traditionally go over the hills right upto Tibet in summar. But after the outbreak of war with China in 1962, their trade with Tibet has been ruined and now they depend mainly on the rearing of sheep and goat for milk, meat, and wool. These animals are also used as beasts of burden. Under the increasing pressure of fast changing economic life they are also adopting agriculture as one of the means of livelihood

Conclusion – Thus pastoralism is mainly adopted by societies living in rainfall deficient & mountainous areas but they frequently depend on the other economies for their food needs.

Horticulture

Introduction: Horticulture is the science and art of growing fruits and vegetables. Women culture discovered horticulture in Middle East 10 thousand years ago when they observed that sprouts grew out of seeds left in storage pit and sometimes those sprouts survived enough to become young plants. This discovery laid foundation for new kind of self-sufficient society which could produce own food and would be no longer dependent on hunting and gathering.

Examples of Horticulturist tribes

  • Arapesh and Trobrianders of Pacific Islands.
  • Azande, Bemba, Tiv, Tallensi of Africa.
  • Ifugao of Philippines.
  • Hopi and Zuni Red Indians of North America.
  • Abor, Muria Gond, R-? Naga of India.

Characteristics of Horticulturist tribal economy

  • Has more sedentism & permanent settlements as compared to hunting-gathering societies.
  • Produce more food as compared to hunting-gathering economy resulting into moderate population density.
  • Moderate size of self-sufficient economic groups of about 2000 people.

Principle of Production

  • Technology: Simple method of farming from simple hand held tools such as digging stick, spade and hoe.
  • Division of labour according to age and sex with some specialization.
    • Women’s contribution to subsistence is more in horticulturist economy than men.
  • Availability of plenty of food and infrequent food shortages.
  • Food type: Yam, banana, coconut in Pacific Islands; millets, roots in Asia; sweet potato, potato in North America etc.
  • Part time political leadership due to sedentism and availability of enough food. .

Conclusion: Thus horticulturist economy set the stage for full-fledged settled economy.

Agriculture

Definition: It is the practice of cultivating the soil, producing crops, and raising livestock and in varying degrees the preparation and marketing of the resulting products.

  • Origin – It was discovered 8000 years ago when new plant varieties were discovered, new animals were domesticated and plough was used for cultivation along with principles of irrigation and weeding.

Examples of agricultural tribes

  • Disu of Indonesia, Kachim of Burma, Aztecs of America.
  • India- Ho, Lepcha, Baiga, Oraon, Bhill etc.

Characteristics of agricultural economy

  • Because of attachment with land, they are most sedentary communities.
  • Highest population density.
  • Permanent rural and urban communities.
  • Complex agricultural technology in the form of plough, spade, sickle, harness etc.
  • Irrigation and weeding.
  • Division of labour is age and sex based. There is high degree of specialization. Women here contribute less to subsistence compared to men. Cooperative work groups are found here.
  • Land ownership based on set of rules. Ownership is kinship based.
  • Money, land, cattle and agricultural equipments are their capital.
  • Frequent food shortages due to vagaries of nature upon which agriculture depends.
  • Trade is surplus which is in agricultural produce such as food grains, pulses, vegetables etc.
  • Full time political leadership and economic inequalities due to wealth differences.

Conclusion: Thus agricultural economy is most advanced type of economy in the series of evolution of economic system from hunter gatherers.

Globalisation & Indigenous Economic System 

Introduction : Tribals were globalised and exposed to outside world through colonialism. It has brought about many positive and negative changes. However indigenous populations have been trying to adjust themselves to the changing economic scenario.

Globalisation and colonialism

  • Globalization is the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture. In economic sense, globalisation means interaction of an economy with other economies of the world.
  • Tribal people were geographically isolated. They live in inaccessible areas and these regions are resources rich areas. Industrial revolution in Europe and America resulted in exploitation of these resources rich areas in Africa and various parts of Asia including India where tribal population is concentrated. For raw materials, colonial rulers entered in these areas and the indigenous economies got connected to global economies.

Features of tribal economy

  • Tribal economy is very primitive and simple economy. Their technology is very backward which is compensated by social network.
  • Indigenous economy is a subsistence economy. They are mainly hunters and pastoralists, horticulturists, and shifting cultivators.gatherers,
  • In these kinds of societies, various kinds of exchanges are found such as ceremonial, reciprocity, redistribution, barter and market system.
  • The economy is non-monetized. They lack surplus and the consumption is routinized.
  • Indigenous people are inextricably linked with their relationship with the environment so is the tribal economy in the following manner:
    • Spiritual relationship with nature and forest
    • Strong attachment with land
    • Tribals live in thickly forested areas rich in natural resources such as oil, timber, farmable land,minerals etc.

Impact of globalisation on indigenous economies : Globalisation has both positive and negative effects on indigenous economies.

Negative impact: are more as compared to positive effects.

  • are facing challenges of extinction or survival and renewal in globalised world.
  • Impact is strongest on these communities as they don’t have voice & hence are swept away easily by invisible hand of market.
  • At frontline of globalisation’s expansion, resources such as forests minerals, water, genetic diversity etc. are indigenous part of tribal economy. New advances of technology have brought export led development which has resulted in extermination of countless native communities with extermination of forests for raw materials.
  • Traditional sovereignty of tribals over hunting and gathering rights is thrown in question as national government bind themselves to new global treaties..
  • New trade and investment agreements have resulted in opening up of inaccessible tribal areas for industrial expansion, big dams, pipelines, minerals, roads, energy development etc. which threatens native economy.
  • Patenting of genetic resources through WTO mechanism has resulted in privatisation of indigenous knowledge depriving indigenous people of their livelihood.
  • Land ownership in tribal people was collective ownership but due to globalisation and individualism, private property is entering in tribal culture.
  • Distribution: earlier equal distribution but now due to individualism, uneven distribution and hierarchy is found.
  • Consumption: earlier no storage and food consumed immediately but now storage of food resulting in inequality.
  • Sale of factors of production such as land, labour due to indebtedness.

Positive effects

  • Popularization of indigenous art and monetary benefits to tribals.
    • Ex: Bastar art got world recognition, Warli painting of Maharashtra tribes.
  • Traditional knowledge digital library project of Government of India: Documentation of indigenous knowledge.
  • Globalisation has helped in popularization of tribal dances and earned them international recognition. Example: Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthani tribe named Kalbelia have been inscribed by UNESCO in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
  • But there is need of promotion of tribal art and culture in sustainable manner and not in exploitative manner.
  • Also there is need of government protection to protect indigenous economic systems and culture through effective implementation of schedule V and schedule VI areas, forest right act etc.

Case studies

  • Tribals live in peripheral market system and they had different degree of exposure to globalization and colonialism. The impact of colonial rule was greatly determined by indigenous customs and traditional values. For example, Nandi and Bushman tribe in Africa were mainly hunting and gathering tribes and they partly practiced pastoralism. The concept of land, private property was greatly unknown to them. Because of their mobile character, they could not even treat the land as their private property. Structured form of economy was absent in them. It was very difficult them to adjust to monetised economy and to participate in cash cropping when the forces of change were introduced by the colonial rule.
  • Edward Brook studied the tribal economy of Africa. Though exposed to money economy, still a lot of exchanges are governed by ceremonial and redistributive criteria and their exchanges are having little economic connotations. They have not given up their tradition to integrate with modernity. These economies can potentially be judged as ‘Dual Economies’.
  • L.P. Vidyarthi in relation to tribal India advocates that exposure to education and occupation has explained the tribal India’s exposure to money economy. The tribals who are located in urban industrial centres regularly remit money to their counterparts living in villages. They spend money on rituals and ceremonial items in weekly markets.

Conclusion: As tribal economy is embedded in cultural matrix, the factors and forces of globalization have greatly affected the tribal culture through its effect on tribal economies. Money economy has altered the indigenous economic system but it has not totally wiped out the ceremonial and redistributive nature of tribal economies.