8.0: Research Methods in Anthropology

Central Problem of Anthropology– Explanation of Humanity

its Origin, Development, Manner of Group formation, Distinct way of Living life i.e Culture , its Limitation & Potential Inherent in Humanity)
Concerned with – Past, Present and All work & Activities of Humanity
Reason of speciality of Anthropology among discipline concerned with humans – b/c Unique combination of Methods – Holistic, Historical & Comparative

Nature of Anthropological Research

Anthropologist – Academic specialist routinely
- trained in art of Studying and understanding the cultures of others than their own.
- Authorities on the art, music and literature of most of the people of world.
  - Through magnificent capability of participant after mingling with people of the society and
  - And develop the knowledge of culture by merely practicing it .
  - This is followed by specific and systematic manner,
  - This systematic procedure is called Field Work Methodology.
In anthropology, Experiment proceeds both observation and hypothesis
Peculiarity of small societies
- Ready made experiment
  - Relative simplicity
  - limited number of variables
- Compared to other research anthropologist experience both advantage and handicap as he can’t control them.
Boldness of approach
- leaving the country, his home , for longer period of time
- Exposing himself to hunger, sickness and sometimes danger
- Surrendering his customs, his beliefs and without mental restriction
- Assumes the form of life of a alien society.
Anthropologist practices integral observation, observation beyond which there is nothing except complete absorption of the observer by the object of his observation.
Alternation between two methods – the empirical and the deductive

Field Work Tradition

Fieldwork tradition has made Anthropology a science in real sense.

Field work is Study of people and their culture at their natural Habitat. It is a technique in which anthropologist as non native outsider is supposed to learn local languages, culture, customs and perform them along with them as member of their community. He is then Supposed to collect social facts w/o ethnocentric biases and arrange them in framework.

Scope of Field Work Studies –

Field studies have been the landmark of cultural anthropologists
to Lesser extent of Sociologist &
now Increasingly being done by Political Analyst

Characteristics of Anthropological Field

Prolonged residence of investigators
His participation & observation of society
Attempt to understand the inside view of societies.
Society provides as laboratory.
Immersion in tribal societies, learning as far as possible, to speak, to think, to see, to feel and to act as a member of its culture and at the same time , a trained anthropologist from a different culture.
- This standard was established by Malinowski’s Three residence with Trobriand Islanders.
Malinowski’s Argonauts of Western Pacific in 1922 revealed the potentiality of field work.

Psychology of Fieldwork

fieldwork requires first hand observation, recording or documenting what one sees & hears
Data generated depends upon field worker himself, his psyche, his level of involvement & ability to see & visualise things.

History/ Evolution of Anthropological Fieldwork – examples

Till 19th century, tribals were depicted as barbarous by armchair Anthropologist like Taylor, Frazer in their theory of classical evolution.
However, towards the end of 19th Century , American Anthropologist Lewis Henry Morganlaid his field work on Iroquois Indian of Canada in his 1851 book, “League of Iroquois”
- He wrote one of the first ethnographies,
- invented the study of kinship terminology, & first time used genealogical method to study kinship org (found Iroquois’s kinship system different from others)
  - This method was completely used by W.H.R Rivers in his study of Toda of Nilgiri hills in 1904
But actual field work tradition stared with expedition of Franz Boason Baffin Island & in British Columbia in 1883. He also conduced research on the Eskimos living in Northen Canada & Kwakiutl Indians in N-W coast.
- He suggested necessity to collect date as much as possible before any generalisation.
- He also suggested that same cultural traitcan’t be linked to same cause. Thus proving uniqueness of each culture in it’s own ways. However, Boas’s overemphasise on data collet w/o any analysis was criticised by many anthropologist.
Amrican Anthropologist, under the leadership of Alfred Cort Haddon conducted research on Torres Strait Island (1899) adjoined by W.H.R Rivers and Saligman
Later studies on tribal societies became more intense & illuminating – Reddiffe Brown, Pupil of River & Haddon, conducted fieldwork on Andaman Islanders (1906) was first attempt by anthropologist to investigate Sociological aspect in primitive society.
Then in 1914, Malinowski, a physicist and pupil of Hobhouse, westermarck and Saligman conducted intense fieldwork for 4 years on Trobiand Islander. This was first time that anthropologist conducted fieldwork in native language.
- Due to his fieldwork, the KULA system, which was considered as barbarous act by tribals was found to be economic relation embedded in Social matrix.
- With this expedition, fieldwork became integral part of Anthropology.
Later, Evans Pitchard’s study on Azande (1927) & Nyers (1940) and wrote the classical book “African Political system” and laid foundation of Political Anthropology.
- He showed that kinship played an imp role in maintaining social order.

Conclusion – Thus FW tradition in Ⓐ was theoretically started by classical evolutionists but its systematic development was brought about by scholars of historical particularism, diffusionism, functionalism, cultural personality schools etc. It made Ⓐ studies more holistic & authentic.

Some other Examples

Raymond Firth – field work among Tallency in 1949 & studied primitive economy of Maoris of New Zealand
Margaret Mead – Sex & Temperance in 3 primitive societies in 1935
Cora du Bois – projective technique in Alores
Seligman – Fieldwork on Veddas of Sri Lanka
Modern field Work – Buford, Junker, Conklin

Indian Field work Examples

Verrier Elwin – Field studies such as The Baigas, The Maris etc
Furer-voh -Heimendorf – Fielfwork among the tribes in AP & published a monograph c/l ‘The Chenchus’

Guidelines For Fieldwork

Various Anthropologist has laid following guidelines

FW should be Longitudinal study at-least for 1 year.
Should be conducted by individual rather than group
Researcher to learn native language of cultural being studied
Along with Participant observation, techniques like interview, oral history to be used.
Researcher 👨‍🔬 to build proper temperament & character as long stay in isolation & diff cultures is tough.
Have sound knowledge of general theory & ethnography of region under study.

Importance of Fieldwork

FW has assumed central position in anthropological studies as it checks on ethnocentrism while evaluating & gathering social facts.
Also, it makes Anthropology a science in true sense as everything is based on facts rather than hypothesis

Contribution of Field Work Tradition

concepts
- Cultural materialism
- Emic
- New Ethnography
Theories
- Historical Particularism
- Cognitive Theories

Problems of Field Work Tradition

Practical Problems
- How to be involved with – if with knowledgeable- can monopolise or interfere
- Difficultly to manage r/l in Factional society – may lead to commotion of society
- Stay on in the field & collect at least minimum of reliable date.
Time
- it requires huge time & energy to conduct simple fieldwork.
- it takes time for natives to reveal social facts to outsiders
Methodological Problems
- Choice of Field – by trial & error(random), serendipitous k/n, lang & co-op of members
- Compulsion of Holism – can’t be possible in complex societies
- Data collection should be closely guided by hypotheses, but without k/n hypothesis can’t formulated
- Observation of society unobtrusively
- Personal Motives
- Personal Bias (E.g Malinowski Diary) & social background
Moral Problems
- Maintaining communication – even after FW completion
- In heterogenous Field, more if the Anthropologist’s personal group live in same background
Deliberate participation
Legitimacy of researcher in society under study

Though some problems, but fieldwork has really helped to Anthropology more holistic & Authentic.

Fieldwork in Contemporary Anthropology

Anna Tsing : her book “Friction: Ethnography of Global connection (2004) based on Meriatus Mt., Indonesia → short term fieldwork, use of ethnographic fragments → studies human dominated landscapes, effect of globalisation, env activism & env degradation
“Fieldwork is Not what it used to be” by Cornell university in which authors analyses fw tradition in transition and analyses alternative models for professimal training in FW
Lila Abu-Lughod – in her work on Bedouin women
- explore cultural pattern of this egyption society.

Technique, Method & Methodology

Research basically means search for knowledge. It is scientific and systematic search for pertinent info on specific topic

Research Technique –

it refers to behaviour and instrument we use in performing research operations such as making observation, recording data, technique of processing data and the likes
Ex – Observation, schedules, interview, case study

Research Method

it is behaviour and instrument used in selecting & constructing research techniques.
Ex- in method of participant observation, technique that can be used are interactional recording, filming ete.
These two terms are used interchangeably.
Ex of Methods
- Types I – Primary & Secondary
- Types II
  - Holism
  - Cultural Relativism
  - Humanitarianism

Research methodology

Way of systematically solving the reasearch problem.
Science of studying how research can be mader scientifically.
These not only include Research method, but also consider logic behind methods.

Tools of Data Collection

Are different methods & instruments used in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data etc

In anthropology there are several types of fieldwork methods that are used while conducting research.

Types

Observation : 1. Non – Participant 2. Participant
Interview
Questionnaire & Schedule
Case Study
Genealogical Method
Life History
Oral History
Participatory Appraisal

Below we will go more into depth with several fieldwork methods that are used.

Observation

Observation is the act/method of noticing the things & events as they exist & occur respectively & obtaining information from world around us. In John Dollard’s words , “The primary research instruments is observing human intelligence, trying to make sense out of human experience.”

Observation in Anthropology – it is scientific technique & oldest technique for data collection method used in qualitative research & ethnography.

Merits

least invasive method & so the behaviour of community is least likely to affected.
minimally integrates themselves into the society they are studying – so have access to body of info
gathers data through verbal communication .
while attempting to remain non-intrusive of the culture.
focuses on community interaction through language
- History of individual & community to understand community
- Thr open dialogue, c/l a dialectic, in which information flows back & forth b/w researcher & subject.

Various Types of observation put in practice are

Controlled / Uncontrolled Observation
- Controlled– in it anthropologist create atm artificially for observation. Extremely useful for experimental case study ,
  - these are descriptive in nature
  - Involve minimum participation of observer.
- Uncontrolled – in it conduct research in society as member but universe of study is nature so can’t controlled.
  - Procedure – analysis of everyday events & generalisation based on that
Structured / Unstructured Observation
- Structured – characterised by careful definition of units to be observed, information to be recorded, & the selection of pertinent data for observation & standardisation of cond of observation.
- Unstructured– contrasting to above
Participant / Non- Participant Observation
- Non – Participant– in it anthologist studies a particular society or culture but not participating i.e limited interaction as a member of that society.
  - Anthropologist can be thought as the fly on the wall.
  - used to examine the details about – how the subject interact with one another & environment around them & body behavior (e.g eye gaze, facial expression), speech styles (e.g pitch)
  - But usually the Emic approach is preferred when observing social context.
  - It has some limitations
    - Observer Effect – This is caused by the presence of the research having an influence over the participant’s action.
    - While using it the researcher’s opinions may oppose that of participant’s on a certain issue.
  - The only solution to this problem and to have a fuller and unbiased take on the research is to use both non-participant and participant method.

Most important observation is participant observation.

Participant Observation

PO is one type of scientific technique for data collection used in qualitative research & ethnography. It has set of principles which can assure accuracy of data collection.

As defined by Malinowski, PO is trying to come to an appreciation of our subjects way of life by immersing ourselves in it, participating in many of dat-to-day aspects.

Participant Observation & Anthropology

Originated in field research linked to European & American voyages of scientific exploration & pioneered by Franz Boas
However, later developed & popularised by Malinowski in his study of Trobriand Islanders
Also by students of Boas like Ruth Benedict & later in urban research of Chicago School of society
PO is now accepted as pre-requisite to a responsible FW.

PO : Methods & Practices

PO is an attempt to put both observer & observed on same side by making observer member of group.
In it anthropologist must create intimate r/l b/w themself & the culture studied & involve in the culture like a member of that society.
This method helps to develop a deeper Raaport as it may result in member opening up more , → allow anthropologist understand more than an Etic point of view
Involves Various Methods
- Informal interview
- Direct observation
- Participative observation
- Collective discussion
- Analyse personal documents
- Life Histories
Enable noting observational details as well as more hidden details (e.g taboo)

Phases in PO – According to Howell (1972) there are 4 stages

Types of PO – Spradley (1980) provided 5 types

Non Participatory – No contact / No Rapport
Passive Participation – Researcher only as bystanders
Moderate Participation – balanced b/w insider & outsider
Active Participation – Fully embracing activity i.e ‘Going native’
Complete Participation – Completely integrated with population.

Case studies

Evan Pitchard, in his study of Azande, was successful to get “native point of view”
- Immersing himself in Azande culture, he accurately explained practice of witchcraft though not personally believing in it.
Malinowski → though he himself agreed that he was not successful to get ‘native point of view!

Merit’s of PO

Record accurate behaviour of members as members of community are unaware of researcher’s purpose. Least likely to affected
Access to vital & hidden info → this great depth of experience.
Recording Context gives meaning to expression of opinion.
Getting “native point of views”

PO : criticism

Clifford Geertz → in his work “from native’s Point of view” – criticised possibility of reaching full native view.
Narrowing of range of observation by becoming member
If assume imp role, he become instrumental in effecting changes in the group behaviour.
Emotional involvement of observer → “going native” ; detrimental to objectivity
Not building Rapport → Problem which was faced by Mead while studying samoans
Due to selective nature of data recording, inevitable influence of personal biases.

PO : Further Developments

New variant: ‘observing Participation’ observation of community of which observer is full or partial member.
- Similar to Lila Abu-Lughod’s “halfie Ⓐ” i.e. FW by bicultural Ⓟ on culture which they are part of.

Conclusion – Participation Observation allows collection of more authentic date, thus making Ⓐ more scientific discipline.

Thus intensive filed-work has prerequisite of PO which helps to observe detailed behavioural pattern in simple societies.

Interview

Introduction – Interview is scientific tool of date collection. It is an effective, informal verbal or conversation, initiated with specific purpose and focussed on certain planned content areas. Its a two way process for mutual interaction.

Acc to Young interview is, “intentional process”.
Acco to Gopal, it is “conversation with purpose”
Acc to Goode & Hatt, interview is Fandamentally a process of social interaction”

Objectives of areas

Exchange of ideas & experiments
One can seeure full amount of person’s experiences, life cycle, attitude, Socal background, motivation, ambitions, etc.
Behavioural relations & explanation for particular behaviour can be understood.
Collection of subjective as well as objective data.
Acc to Benjamin-D-Paul, the aim of interview is to relate these two sets of data.

Principles techniques – there are cetain principles too, which ensure max & accurate data from respondent or interviewer

Interviewer → open mind w/o preoccupation
proper intro. should be given from interviewer to interviewee.
Interviewer should be calm, warm, Sympathetic patient listener.
It interview turns emotional, suspend it to next session. Thus timing & rationality.
Patient listening & avoid raising confusing questions.
securing comparable data.
Should be based on interview guide, it is a research tech which is relatively unstructured. Contain relevant points on basis of which question are to be asked.

Types of Interview (based on)

Process of interview: 3 phases

Case Study

Ruth Benedict → while writing “The chrysanthemum & Sword” (1946) → ‘interview many Japanese migrants officials as access to Japan was not available due to WW

Advantages

useful in collecting rare type of data (adultery, incest etc)
Collect date related to several aspects.
flexibility & conducive environment
contradictory statements can be point out & reasons can be learned.
spot differentiation beth fact & fiction.
used for all segments of people.
permits maximum variation.
People will talk freely (depending on informality of occasion)
Direct, trustworthy, reliable tool.
Interviews supplement personal info.

Limitations

Both interviewer & interviewee have subjectivity
respondent may suffer from lack of memory or ability to articulate
As pointed out by Robert Hymen, interviewer can have bias due to preoccupation,
interviewer & interviewee from diff. culture thus problem in communication→ faulty data
Interview → length, Structure, prescription of alternative may go off the mark
Interviewee may lie Ex : Derek freeman’s critique on Mead’ssamaooa study was based on this, that Mead’s theories were based on false info. provided by Soamaan teenager

Conclusion – So interview tech is very important tool in the hands of sociocultural anthropologist. However they can’t entirely rely on interview tech due to its limitation. Consequently this tech can be used to supplement technique of investigation.

Types of Interview based on Approaches

Directive / Standardised/ Structured Interview
Non-directive / Unstructured Interview

Directive/standardised/structured interview

Here all the respondents reply to the same questions.
Similar questions are framed and fixed for all.

Types of directive interview
- Fixed alternative question (fully structured interview): Here choices of alternatives are provided as stimulus & a few alternative responses are given.
- Open ended questions (Unstructured interview): Choices are not provided (Both stimulus & response are left free)
- Semi structured interview: Either stimulus or responses are left free and other is structured.

Features of directive Interview
- can be take shape of Questionnaire or Schedule: questionnaire & schedule only differ in application, not in structure
- Directive interview is a rigid technique b/c it has less amount of flexibility.
- Questionnaire has more rigidity than schedule as in later questions can be reformed for convenience of respondent, but not in questions so may fail to convey full meaning → no desired response.

Advantages of fixed alternative questions
- quickly analysable & standardisable. Answers are given in the form of preference which is relevant in comparative study.
- Presence of alternatives makes the meaning of question clearer.

Disadvantages of fixed alternative questions
- Sometimes it forces statement about which respondent have no opinion or have no crystallised opinion.
- Choice may not respond to opinion of respondent.
- Omissions are possible & alternative responses may lead to biasness.

Advantages of open ended questions
- It is used in exploration process. They are nearly raising an issue without providing any alternative structure.
- They are framed to seek respondent’s ideas and perception.

Disadvantages of open-ended questions
- Responses may vary which becomes confusing.
- It is less comparable and quantifiable. •

Non directive interview (unstructured interview)

It is a diffused kind of interview setup in which questions are asked randomly. Hence has flexibility. It needs an expert interviewer as it does not have a structural set up in which questions are asked randomly.

Advantages of non-directive interview
- It, due to its flexibility, can capture relevant data when respondent agrees to provide
- It is capable of generating qualitative data relating to culture & personality. Thus it the information is very efficient in reaching the hidden aspect of social structure.

Disadvantages of non-directive interview
- It results into lack of comparability due to flexibility.
- When used in testing hypothesis, it does not result in desired result.
- result in generation of data which are not relevant.

However it is very useful in anthropological studies particularly in initial period of research.

Semi-structured interview

It is an intermediate type between directive and non-directive interview.

Types
- Focused Interview
- Repeated Interview
- Depth Interview

Focussed Interview:
- used in a particular event & its consequences.
- E.g. flood, famine, experience of people during natural calamities.
- It requires a skilful interviewer.
- Features of focused interview
  - Selection: of people known to have been involved in a particular situation.
  - Background: It also proceeds on the basis of interview.
  - It emphasises mainly on symbols e.g. religion, language etc.
- This focused interview can bring out a significant amount of information about experience of particular event.

Depth Interview
- is followed from the domain of social psychology.
- They believe that the human personality is hidden in the subconscious part of the mind. The purpose of this interview is find-out deeper aspects of human mind.
- For them it is capable of eliciting relevant data pertaining to personality of respondent.
- It requires an expert hand & is used by new ethnography.
- According to Kingsay, a depth interview can be supplemented by a rapid fire interview.

Repeated Interview
- It is useful in studying the specific development of the same process.
- It is also used in the study of diachronic (change) type of information in which the study is guided by processual approach which contains time variable, allows interviewer to keep in touch with the object for long duration.
- However it is expensive in terms of time and resources.
- It proceeds according to interview guide.

Questionnaire & Schedules

Questionnaire– set of printed or written questions with choice of answers, devised for purpose of Survey or statistical study, filled by respondents

Schedules-formalised set of questions, statements provided to enumerator who ask questions and to respondant & note down the answers. Webster defined schedule as “a formal list, a catalogue or inventory.

The increasing use of these is probably due to increased emphasis by social scientists on quantitative measurement of uniform accumulated data.

Similarities

Both questionnaire & schedules are much used tools in gathering a variety of data.
collection of personal preference, social attitudes, beliefs, opinions, behavioural pattern.
Designed to collect data from large, diverse & widely scattered groups of people.
both are like value addition in Interviews, in evaluating personal & social behaviour & situation.
Also aid in standardising & objectifying observation & interviews
Useful for isolating one element at a time & thus intensify observation of it.

Differences : Both popularly used in research services. Though looks Similiar, but difference in technical point of view.

questionaries are self-administered & schedule is bridge b/w the interviewer & the respondent.
US Bureau of census distinguished b/w both on the basis of auspices under which the data are collected.

Features	Questionnaire	Schedule
Operated By	Sent thr mails & informants to be answered as specified in covering latter.	Filled by refresh worker who can interpret the question, if necessary
Data collection cost	Collection of data is cheap	More expensive as money required to appoint enumerators & giving training
Interaction with researcher	No face to face	face to face interaction – read out the question & note the answer
Non Response Ratio	Non response is usually high	Generally very low non responses may be b/c filled by researcher
Bias or Cheating by Interviewers	non as filled by interviewee themselves	Vulnerable to these
Identity of responders	Not alway clear	Identity is known
condition of under which responses given	Are not known	Known
Time	very slow since many respondents don’t return questionnaire within time	Info collected well in time
respondent’s educational status	Used only when respondent is literate	even in illiterate society
Risk of incomplete & Wrong Info	Particularly when question are difficult to understand	Info collected is generally complete & accurate as numerator can remove difficulties
success of this	its lies in quality of questioner itself	depends upon honesty & competency of enumerator & researcher
Interpretations	Respondent him/herself have to interpret the question	Researcher may help respondent to understand the question
Supplementary possibility	Not possible to supplement with observation method	Can be supplemented with observation method

Types of Schedules – vast variety can be classified in various ways. Few are presented below

Observational Schedules or Forms– offers the opportunity for uniform classification in recording the activities & social situation of persons or groups being observed – Serves several purposes simultaneously
Document Schedules – used for recording data obtained from documents, case histories & other material. Ie. limited to those that can be uniformly secured
Institutional Survey Forms or Evaluation Schedules – used to visualise the problems faced by or inherent in given type of institutions

Types of Questionnaires – there are of vast varieties

Structured Questionnaires – which pose definite, concrete & preordained questions, prepared in advanced ; additional question only to clarify vague or inadequate replies ; based on type of required response they can be
- Closed Form Response – used when categorised data are required
- Open End Response – free & spontaneous expressions – not limited in replies ; usually for intensive studies of limited no of cases or for preliminary exploration of new problems & situations in qualitative nature as exploration tool
  - But as non restrictive, so posses problem of classification
Unstructured Questionnaires – flexibility chief advantage, designed to obtain viewpoints, opinions, attitudes & to show r/l & interconnections b/w data that might escape notice under more mechanical types of interrogation.
- These are frequently referred to as interview guides
- The chief advantage of of these stems from danger that non addictive & non comparable data will be accumulated when structuring is imposed.

Prime Importance in the construction of these are

Definiteness & concreteness
simplicity of questions
Freedom from possibilities of subjective evaluation
Care in removing tendencies to put the replies in respondent’s mouth

Advantage

Over personal interviews – provide privacy & leisurely pace – so respondent can reflect on the questions raised & weigh his responses to them
Capable to reaching large no of diverse people relatively speedily & at a faction of cost of the personal interview.
If intimate info is sought, mail offers – desired anonymity

Problems of communication : apply to all surveys regardless of content

language – careful attention & experimentation needed to produce effectively worded question, how will the responded interpret ?
- Easy to grasp , simple vocabulary
- Clear & straightforward syntax
- Only common phrases & expression ; professional jargon only if directed towards selected group with common lang
- Subjective rating should be avoided.
Frame of Reference of respondents influence his Answers
Arrangement of questions should be logical
Length of Questionnaire – should be free from unnecessary reputation.

Conclusion In summary the wide use of schedules & questionnaires as independent research tools is a controversial issue. There is more agreement that, it used as subsidiary research tool, these form can often be advantage in a great variety of studies.

Case Study Method

The case study is part of “situational Analysis”used in anthropological research. Acc. to P.V. Young, “It is comprehensive / exhaustive study of social unit, be that unit a person, group, social institutions or community, is called case study. Thus It is method of qualitative analysis wherein

Aim – of case study is to ascertain natural history that can account of generic development of person or group. Thus Burges termed case study as “The social microscope” According to Gluckman , use of case study is to analyse different conflictive perspective in social system.

Types of case studies

Illustrative case study – primarily descriptive case studies.
Explotary (or Pilot) case Study – Condensed CS performed before implementing large scale investigation.
Cumulative case study – aggregate info from several sites collected at diff time
Critical instance case study – examining Particular site with no interest in generalisation.

Evolution : Case study & Examples

Frederic Le play is reputed to introduced the CS method in social science.
Herbert spencer was first to use case study method in this ethnographic studies
Dr. William Healy, Cora-du-Bois, A. R Radcliffe Brown & Oscar Lewis are scholars who used this method
Cara Du Bois in her study of Alor (1937-39) (Indonesia) → collected case studies, life histories → interpreted in collab with Kardiner & published “The People of Aboy’ (1944) developing “model personality structure“
Oscar Lewis, with this study of Tepoztian village (Mexico) ⇒ analyzed changed nature of village after 20 years by study of R.C. Brown
- Published in “life in Mexican Village: Tepoztian Restudied”
- used various research methods
S.M. Pathaik in his article “Relevance of cs method in Anthropology of Development” Published in “Indian Anthropologist” → examines relevance of case study method in developmental Anthro. It stress that other methods can be supplemented to cs for comprehensive study. (Use example of Pargias of kooraput (OD)

Case study : characteristics

Researcher can take single unit or more or even situation for study.
selected unit is studied comprehensively
more qualitative study than quantitative.
efforts to know mutual interrelationship of factors.
Behavioural patterns are studied
Based on certain assumptions that uniformity in basic human nature.
Results in fruitful hypothesise along with data which may be helpful in testing them.

Case study & Advantages

Deepen the perception & give Insights into personality
Real & enlighted record of personal experiences
trace out natural history of social unit & it’s relation with social factors & forces.
intensive study of social unit ; CS is strategic tool for any social research
Gained k/n helps in the task of designing appropriate q&s
Reveals new research problems
Mean to well understand the pass of social group as its emphasis on historical analysis.
Enhance the experience of the researcher & in turn ↑ his analysing ability & skills.
It enable the study of social change. (Dynamics of social change)

Case study: challenges

Not Comparable (or are seldom comparable)
Acc to Read Bain Process is more subjective & data collected is not significantly scientific
danger of false generalisation as no set of rules are followed
Require more time & expenditure
Correct sampling is not Possible in all societies, hence can’t be used in all society

Case studies are most poplar among social scientist. Its limitation can be reduced when stratified analysis & case data complement each other.

Genealogical Method

Genealogy refers to pedigree or systematic narration or visual representation of family tree showing all ramifications of kinship linkages, terms & kinship usages, etc.

it plays important role among illiterate people
His Ancestry is traced back to several generations & large no. of Collaterals are known by name.

History : Evolution

This method of data collection was invented by W.H.R Rivers during his Torres Strait expedition.
However, it was used First used by L.H Morgan for family study in Iroquois islanders

Components of Genealogy

it includes names of all members of a family, their age, sex & marital studies
Techniques of genealogical method

Genealogical Techniques

proper techniques should be followed
Name of male in CAPITAL letters, & females in ordinary letters
Name of social divisions, villages etc. in red ink
Name of husband to left of name of wife.
Line of descent diff. for patrilineal & matrilineal.
If patrilineal son’s & dughters of Son will be on one sheet & of daughter’s will be on sheet of her husband.
Died person – d.y.– died young & d.unm. -died unmarried

Methodology & characteristics of ego

Information is gathered thr ego
Ego– person of family, who is main source of information thr which all kinship relations are traced & family tree is drawn.
Ego preferably should be a senior member with adequate knowledge
- I.e who may be able to provide cultural data spread over the generations
Young informant is to be accepted with caution
Components of genealogy – age, name, sex, marital status

Functional value

use in regulation of m’age, inheritance of property, succession to chieftainship, etc
helpful in sociological work & investigation on population & migration
on occasion of ceremonies connected with birth m’age, death, this geneology becomes imp. Concerning the principle participants.
Vital statistics, to know demographic pattern
Pedigree to detect genetic disorder,

Cautions

Informant should not feel that info. will be used against them/
Good rapport with information.
into collected should be interpreted in local context
Phrasing of que should be cautions.

Conclusion – Despite some limitations, genealogical method has improved anthropological data collection & it proved of such value in Ⓐ Research that it in now considered an essential technique in sociological investigation.

Life History

Life history is a method in which life is situated within it’s social and cultural context and considering sharp turnings and choices that individual makes in specific circumstances. According to such choices, beliefs & attitudes about indivival & fellow beings are revealed.

Clifford Geertz has made use of such techniques in his anthropological & historical studies.

Life history is that research project which does not begin or end with recording of individual’s life but covers all possible sources of related evidences, thr several methodologies, thus aspiring onwards a triangular of meaning context & evidence

Sources– series of biographical & autobiographical a/c, dignies, for letters, photographs, folk fore, etc

Advantages

Can systematically explore experience of social change
helps to understand individual life from his/her own perspective of individuals themselves – something quantitative interviews may be missing.
provide info about biographical resources, aspirations, opportunities, turning points
enable researcher to make Thick descriptions of context (term r/l to Clifford Geertz)
data of effect of age, diff periods, etc.
No. of methods used to collect date adds validity & reliability
Addresses life as a whole & locate life stold historical times.

Uses

Examining patterning of general values
Foci of cultural interest
Perceptions of natural & social relationship.

Criteria for life history – discussed by John Dollard

Subject must be viewed in cultural series.
Behaviour of individual life must be viewed as socially relevant
Family of Individual – must be viewed in it’s role of submitting culture & way of life of group thr indiviual members.
Continuous related character of experience of childhood thr adulthood.
The social situation must be studied in order to learn kind & degree of social pressures, social forces, social participation or abstention, exercised by the subject.
material must be organised & conceptualised.
Personal data -name, age place of birth.
socially relevant experiences.
Organisation of his thought, cognition & future plants.

Thus life history is an important method of data collection in case of an individual.

Oral History

Oral history/ oral tradition means recording, preservation & interpretation of Historical info which is come by transmission of certain ideas, beliefs, stories or any other tradition from one generation to another in unwritten oral form. It is an important components of all cultures.

It is dominant source of transmission in isolated non-literate groups resting totally on oral tradition from generation to generation by word of mouth both for sacred & secular knowledge

Examples –

Folktales & folklores,
Mythology.

Significance

Significance is in no way limited in great civilisation for, the later represent the co-existence of a great tradition along with several little traditions.
Robert Redfield considers it character of “Little Tradition” little community.
informal way of transmission, though shrinking in urban industrialised world
can be used in reconstruction of history if no date, is available

Features

Anonymous – Represents collective experience and wisdom
lessons learned by several generations thr experience are crystallized into oral tradition.
With growth of culture the changes in Oral tradition are inevitable.

Uses of Oral Tradition

in simple societies a part of oral tradition can be extremely valuable in reconstruction of history.
Oral history permits questioning the witness
In oral history questioning with individuals, the closed door’ of the written record gives way to open door of the interview.
Can reveal the fact that don’t get into public records.
Way to record data in those societies or situation with no written records.
Involve recording life histories among all socio-economic levels of the population.

Limitations

not all oral traditions lead to historical reconstruction.
Remembered history can merge into mythology.
Folktales → least reliable in point of view of writing history.

Conclusion – thus oral tradition is an important source of knowing culture & history of simple societies where written data is not easily available.

Secondary Source of Information

Secondary date means data that are already available, which is collected & analysed already by someone else. when research utilises secondary data he have to look into various sources from where he can obtain them.

Types

Published – govt. data, magazines, reports, books publications)
Unpublished: Diaries, letters, unpublished, biographies)

Features – material is diverse but have some common character

Ready made available.
Not require trouble of construction tools and administrating them
Researcher have no original control over data; both form & content are shaped by others
Sources Not limited in time & space.

Uses of Secondary resource – 3 ways

Info from 2° source can be used as Reference purposes
As a bench mark against which the finding of research may be tested.
May be used as Sole source of info for research project.

Cautions while using 2° Data

Reliability of Data
Suitability of Data – may be for one but not for other.
Adequacy of Data –

Example

19th century Armchair Anthropologist
Ruth Benedict The chrysthemtham and sword.
- National character study
Marcel Morass wrote “The Gift’ (1925) about role of reciprocity & exchange in humans society.
- Used Malinowski’s data → thus 2° source

Limitations of Secondary Data

official statistics may reflect the biases
As way the thing are measured may change over time, thus difficult to compare. Ex in crime statistics, definition of crime keep changing
Doc may lack authenticity
Representativeness : may not be of wider population,

Conclusion – secondary sources of information are important in any social research, provided they are reliable suitable & adequate. As a method it is highly economical & time saving, as compared to elaborate field surveys.

Participatory Rural Appraisal

PRA describe a growing family of methods to enable rural local people to share, enhance & analyse their knowledge of life & conditions, to participate in planning & decision making process.

Why

Unless & until rural poor participate in determining their own well bing, our rural development programmes would yield limited results.
To eliminate biased perceptions derived from ‘Rural development tourism’ (brief rural visit by urban biased professionals)

Solution to this problems is participatory rural appraisal.

Historical Background

has evolved & spread from beginnings in Ethiopia, India, Kenya & elsewhere
PRA evolved from Rapid Rural Appraisal in 1970s -1980s which was a response to biased perceptions derived from rural development tourism & effect of high cost questionnaires.
It is the contribution of anthropology to rural development

Assumptions

Villagers have adequate info
They can offer such info when have opportunity

Principles of PRA

Reversal of learning from local people – gaining insights from local physical, technical & social knowledge
Learning rapidly & progressively using flexible methods, opportunism, improvisation, iteration & cross checking
- Instead of following blue print but being adaptable in learning process.
Offsetting biased of rural development tourism by relaxing, not being rushed
Optimising trade off b/w time & quality
Triangulation : Cross checking & progressive learning & approx thr plural investigation
Seeking Variability – maximising the diversity & richness of information ℹ️

Method of PRA

Rapport building with villagers, giving opportunity to participate & share info
Techniques of PRA
- Participatory mapping and modelling in which villagers prepare maps of village profile with chalks, colours and other materials.
- Participatory transact walk: It includes systematically working with villagers thr the area of village & discussing about the aspects of village life observed during the walk. It may relate to people, resources, soil, technology etc.
- Technique of time line: An historical a/c changed life of given village. Villagers may be helped broadly to connect the changes with major events, political regimes or certain important years.
- Participatory diagramming: villagers prepare diagrams of various social economic,& physical phenomena such as wages received, food consumed, prices, crops grown etc.
- The ranking & scoring technique: It is applied to learn about the priorities, references & choices of villagers in matters of occupation, food, fodder, energy use etc.

Criticism of PRA:

as time consuming method of data collection. But the years of wisdom with the villagers needs time to be revealed. They cannot be described instantaneously. However compared to survey method, time required is much less.

Uses of PRA

natural resource management programs for women & the poor, agriculture, health & food security
helps in knowing rural poor & appreciating their perceptions, needs and aspirations.
It involves them in a participatory manner in planning & decision making for betterment of their quality of life
It reiterates the fact that PRA is the approach to rural development which forms the basis for successful implementation of the programs

Dangers in Dealing with PRA – faces danger & is vulnerable

Instant fashion – vulnerable to discrediting by over rapid promotion & adoption, followed by misuse, & by sticking on labels without substance.
Rushing – By 1980s word rapid had become a liability. Used to legitimise rash & biased rural dev tourism.
Formation –
Routinisation –

Sampling Method in Anthropology

Every piece of research requires sample & there are many ways of finding suitable sample.

Random Sampling

Picking names randomly.
In it everyone in the population has the same chance of getting chosen.
Is is easy b/c it is quick and can even be performed by computer.

Systematic sampling

Picking every 10th or 20th or 30th person on a list or register.
This carries same risk of being unrepresentative as random sampling as every 10th person could be of same gender.

Stratified sampling

Attempt to make samples representative as possible avoiding the problem that could be caused by random samples.
To do this, the sample frame will be divided into number of smaller groups such as social class, age, gender, ethnicity etc.
Individuals are then drawn at random from these groups

Quota sampling

Researchers will be told to ensure that the sample fit with certain quotas. E.g. they might be told to find go participants, with 50 of them being unemployed.

Cluster sampling

This takes a random sample at various stages of sampling process.
E.g. you might take random country, take random schools from this country and take random pupils from this school to find your sample.

Snowball sampling

Researchers might find a few participants and then ask them to find participants themselves and soon.
This is useful when samples are difficult to obtain. E.g. Criminals

Data Analysis and Presentation

Data analysis is of two types:

Qualitative &
Quantitative analysis.

Qualitative analysis

Qualitative research is based on theoretical and methodological principles of interpretive science.
It contains minimum quantitative measurements, standardisation and mathematical techniques.
In general qualitative analysis is not as abstract as quantitative analysis.
During data analysis investigator searches for pattern of data and when such patterns are identified they interpret that data moving from description of empirical data to interpretation of meaning.
Steps of qualitative analysis: The qualitative analysis is started during the process of data collection itself. During that time data are collected, coded and conceptually organised. There are 3 cyclical steps:
- Data reduction
  - It refers to the process of manipulating, interpreting, transforming & highlighting the data while it is being presented. Summarising, Coding and Categorising are some ways of doing this.
  - If requires careful reading of recorded material and identification of main themes.
- Data organisation : This is a process of assembling the information around certain themes and points, categorising information in more specific terms and presenting the result in same form.
- Interpretation: It involves making decision and drawing conclusion related to research question.

Quantitative analysis: There are 3 types of Quantitative analysis

Primary analysis: directing, collecting
Secondary analysis – Using already collected data such as Government data.
Meta-analysis involves both 1° and 2º analysis.

Quantitative analysis involves 6 major steps

Data Preparation: It involves all those forms of manipulation that are necessary data for further processing.
Counting: Registering the occurrence and frequency of occurrence of certain answers and research items
Grouping & presentation: Ordering of similar groups, distribution of data, presentation in the form of tables and graphs.
Relating: Tabulation and statistical test to explain the occurrence and strength of relationship
Predicting: It is a process of extrapolating trends identified in the study.
Significance Testing: Test of significance. E.g. T-test, F-test, Z- test, annova etc.

Presentation of data for quantitative analysis

Distribution: It is a form of organisation or classification of scores obtained for various categories of a particular variable. It involves following types:
- Frequency distribution: Displays frequency of occurrence
- Percentage distribution: Contains percentages rather than absolute frequency
- Cumulative distribution: It consists of no. of cases up to and including specified scale value.
Tables
Graphs
- Line graphs
- Histograms – Plotted on coordinates by using values (dependent & independent
- Bar diagrams
- Scatter diagram
- Pie chart
- Population pyramid
- Cartograph
- Pictograph

Social analyses assumes that behind his accumulated data there is something more important & revealing than the facts & figures themselves.

Data Interpretation

Refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings. Has 2 major aspects

the effort of establishing continuity in research thr linking the results of given study with those of another
The establishment of some explanatory concepts

Functions of Interpretation – consider as basic component of research process b/c

Thr it can understand abstract principle that work beneath his findings
Leads to est. of explanatory concepts
Help to understand the real significance of findings
Interpretations of findings of exploratory research study often results into hypothesis for experimental research. Involved in transition

Techniques of Interpretation – Not easy job, requires great skills & dexterity ; art learn thr experience & practise ; steps

Reasonable explanation of found relations
Extraneous info, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting
Consultation with specialist of domain for identify any omission & errors
Only after considering all relevant factors, he must accomplish interpretation to avoid false generalisation.

Precautions in Interpretation -as wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions

He must invariably satisfy himself that
- The data are appropriate, trustworthy & adequate for drawing interference
- Data reflect good homogeneity
- Proper analysis has been done thr statistical methods