Home / 1.6: Phylogenetic Status, Characteristics, and Geographical Distribution of Human Fossils

1.6: Phylogenetic Status, Characteristics, and Geographical Distribution of Human Fossils

Australopithecines

Introduction – Was the earliest hominid & probably the ancestor of modern humans. They belong toPlio-pleistocene period, appeared 4 mya or even before in African continent.

Time Period – 5.5 mya – 1.8 mya

Distribution

  • In 1924, Rayond Dart discovered some fossils at Taung (South Africa) & named it as Australopithecus means “Southern apes.
  • In 1938, Robert Brown found similar fossils at Sterkfontein (SA)
  • Similar fossils were found by at Makapansgat, Aramis (Ethiopia), Kanapoi (Kenya) by Leakey in 1995, olduvai Gorgre & Lactoli (Tanzania)

Forms of Australopithecus

  1. Gracile – includes Australopithecus Africanus (Strekfontein & Makapansgat), A. Anamenisis
  2. Robust – Australopithecus Robustus (Kromdroai & Swartkrans) , & A. Boisei

Out of these two forms, Robust became extinct & Gracile form gave rise to modern man.

Physical Features & Character

  • Similarities
    • Presence of Mastoid process
    • Comparable hight – 3.5 -4.5 ft
    • Doliocephalic
    • Parabolic dention arcade ( less in robustus)
    • Lack of chin
    • Presence of Linea aspera
    • Lumbar curve in vertebral column
CharacterGracile FormRobust Form
DistributionEast AfricaEast Africa & South Africa
Time4.4 – 2.0 mya2.3 – 1.8 mya
Bodily Features❖ light built ❖ Relatively long arms ❖ Ape like features are seen in A. Afarensis. ❖ More human like features seen in A. Africanus ❖ Sexual dimorphism is seen❖ heavily built ❖ Relatively long arms ❖ Human like Features ❖ Sexual Dimorphism is seen
Cranial Features
Cranial Capacity400 -600 cc ; larger Brain relative to body size500 -600 cc ; larger Brain relative to body size
Cranial Vaulthigh & expanded in A. Africanus ; include major part of brain lies above level of face unlike apes.Low & not expanded
Sagittal Crest  absent ,( human feature) -indicating weak temporal musclespresent
occipital Toreslowrelatively high
Frontal RegionA. Afarensis – low, flat forehead A. Africanus – higher & well developed foreheadunderdeveloped, long & broad
Supra Orbitals ridgeless prominentlarge
Foramen MagnumDownwards & forwardly placed  suggest ↠ balanced skull & erect postureDownward & forwardly placed
Brain Expended cerebral cortex especially partial & associated areas suggesting they had some form of symbolic communication ↑ size of cerebellum allowed free control of movements during locomotion & manipulation of hands. Well developed -fore head suggesting the expansion of frontal lobes of brain
Sizerelatively smallrelatively large
Facial Features facial part larger than cranial part with marked prognathous my
Nasal BoneA. Afarensis  – completely flattenedslightly elevated
JawsLarge & extremely PrognatuousRelatively less prognatus
Dentition : Hominid Dentition Pre molar are large but bicuspid like modern man. Molars are large. Wearing out pattern similar to man & its downwards
Dental ArchParabolicless parablic
DiastenaPresent n A. AfarensisAbsent
Molarsbigger & stronger
DietOmnivorousvegetarians
Post Cranial Features Probably bipedal : jog – trot like bipedal locomotion in quick short steps with bent knee & hipPresence of lumbar curve which indicates bipedalism Broadened & short illium Femur with torsion angle & linea aspera present on it for attachment of muscles Well developed arches present in footForelimbs short than hind limbs. Fore limbs without sign of any weight bearing activity
Pelvis & Legclose to humancombination of gorilloid & human pattern
FootAbsence of divergent big toepresence of divergent big toe
Morphology
Statureshort, slender A. Afarensis 150 cm (~ 5ft)large in size
ConclusionAnatomical features indicates gracile form of A was essentially bipedal & erect in posturesufficiently bipedal & less errect than gracile type

New Evolutionary Features

  • Forehead – slanting backward
  • Mastoid – inverted pyramid behind ear appeared
  • Linea Aespra – elongated X shaped projection – back of femur

These two direct evidence of bipedalism

  • Acc to biomedical research of Lovejoy (2010) – in early stages, had shifting gait while slowly, he would stumble.

Cultural Characteristics

  • Hunting –
    • Leakey ; meat eater & tool makers – basis bones of animals & primtive tools in olduvai gorge – choppper chopping
    • Acc to Palaeontologist , Dart, Australopithecus used bones, horn & teeth of bigger animals as tools for hunting. He called this culture as Osteokeratodontic
    • Susmanne (2007) – absence of large canine + fire → hunting meaningless; whole have been Scavanger & hunted small animals
  • According to Phil Bean – there is evidence of use of Symbolic Language during this time
  • Were living in community
    • Tanzanian Paleo Anthropologist Fidelis Masao fount fossils foot prints at Laetoli fossil site in North Tanzania, → traveled in group (sometimes over dozens
    • B/c ~ 3.7 mya Africa turned into grassland complete → so where vulnerable to predators → so depend on numerical strength in order to depend themselves .
  • Home Base – harmful for large animals living in group & spending nights on tress → much needed protection.
    • Leakey in Olduvai found Semi-circular home like structure , probably used as screen in olduvai gorge → definite home
    • Division of labour – he assumed that there was DoL based on age & sex. If bipedal Hunter

Finally Dart concluded Australopithecus as hominid.

Phylogenetic Status

These show both ape like & hominid charactistic features but hominid features are overwhelming. There is no unanimous opinion on the Australopithecus taxonomy.

Flowing theories have been proposed for phylogenetic status of Australopithecus

  1. Two Branch Theory – given by Johanson & Timothy ; was accepted till 1985
    • Acc to it, East African fossil A. Aferensis split into two branches – around 3mya
      • Australopithecine line (more sold body)  – represented by A. Africanus (lived up to 2mya), P. Robustus, P. Boisei
      • Hominid line (more slender body) – Homo habilis, homo errectus & Homo sapiens
    • The australopithecine line progressively became robust.
    • This theory has its variants also 
  2. Three Branch Theory – In 1985, a new type of skull was discovered c/l Australopithecine aethiopicus by Allen Walker from Northern Kenya. In 1994, A. ramidus was discovered from Aramis & in 1995 A. anamnesis from Kanapoi (Kenya). These discoveries have led to the change in the evolution of Australopithecines which is given below. 3 branch theory:

Importance

  • Compared to the earlier australopithecines, members of the genus Homo were also developing larger bodies and brains, starting to obtain meat by hunting or scavenging carcasses, and crafting sophisticated stone tools.
  • Bipedalism
  • Their canine teeth were smaller than those found in apes, and their cheek teeth were larger than those of modern humans.
  • Evolving territoriality
  • A large brain size
  • Civilisation

what shift in subsistence strategies might be consistent with the change in body proportions between Australopithecus and Homo ?

Paranthropus

Introduction – The lineage of Australopithecus during late Pliocene & early Pleistocene split into 2 genus.

  1. Homo (More slender body)
  2. Paranthropus (more solid body) – Hominids of it aka Robust Australopithecus

General Characteristics

  • Avg height 4 feet & weight around 120 lbs
  • Skull larger than Australopithecus
  • Caranial capacity – 500 cc ; had lower brain to body sizer ration (comparatively)
  • It’s cranial vault – is low placed & not expanded – unlike Australopithecus
  • Had heavy brow ridges ; supra orbital ridges
  • No vertical forehead & moderately developed sagittal crest (absent in ♂)
  • Hominid teeth – arranged in parabolic dental Arcade (with slightly more U- shaped)
    • with relatively small incisors & canine
    • With no canine diastema
    • Premolars & molars , however were quite large
    • Entire dentition probably designed for extreme crushing & grinding.
  • Simian Self parents unlike Australopithecus (it is bony thickness on the front of the ape mandible.
  • Massive jaws with moderate prognathism
  • More extensive neck muscles
  • Forwardly (slightly ) placed foramen magnum on the skull base
  • Post Cranial skeleton shows a mixture of Gorlilloid & hominid traits
  • Hand skeleton indicates knuckle – walking
  • Divergent big toe

Representatives & Distribution

  1. P. robustaus – more massive from South African, 3.11 feet ; 40-80 kg ; large cranial capacity & pronounced supra – orbital ridges & massive Zygomatic arch (form prominence of cheek)
  2. P. boisei –  from East Africa measuring 4.4 feet tall & 40-80 kg in weight.
    • Leakey refered it as Zinjanthropus boisei
    • These fossils were also discovered from Tanzania, Kenya & Ethiopia.

Homo habilis 

Introduction – In the early, 1960s, Leakey discovered a fossil of a form at Olduvai Gorge, which is now known as earliest known species of genes Homo. The age of fossils is estimated to be around 2 – 1.5 mya.  Acc to Leakey he is contemporary to A. boisei.

Distribution

  • 1960 : Leaky → Olduvai George (Tanzania) → Fragmentary Skull
  • 1976 : Leaky → lake Turkana → compete skull
  • 1986 : T. White → Olduvai George → a skull, right leg & right arm
  • Fossils are also found in Sterkofetein & Swarikrni (south Africa)

Characteristics

  • Short & disproportionately long arm compared to modern human (≤ 3 feet in hight)
  • Cranial capacity – 700 cc ; brain to body size ration also suggest advancement
  • Habilis was tool maker. The toolkit is referred as Olduvan Industry. Include
    • Cutting tools, scraping tools & tools to make tools.
    • Also evidence of composite tools
    • Meat, plants & wood were worked upon.
    • Bones seeds & nuts were cracked open.
  • Larger brain involves longer gestation, larger newborns & greater longevity.
    • The Brain engagement was perhaps the cause & effect of dietary shifts
  • When compared with Australopithecus
    • Developed frontal lobes in brain
    • Reduced brow ridges (Supra – Orbitals)
    • Reduced low jaw
    • Less protruding face
    • Skull is more round
    • Digits of hands are more similar to monkey & apes
  • When compared to Modern man
    • Similar structure of hand → mastered olduwan tools with pebbles
    • Similar teeth → permolar with 2 cusps ; parabolic arched
    • Hind limbs morphology clearly like humans.

Cultural Features

  • Begging of Palaeolithic Culture
  • Maker of Stone tools → Handy Man – “Leaky”
  • Lived in subtropical Savanna near streams & lakes
  • Living in such climatic condition (adoptive characters they manufactured tools & erected bipedaly
  • Laid foundation of modern human way of life
  • He used tools such as Choppers, scraper, burins etc ; recovered from Olduvai gorge site around 2 mya
  • Division of Labour – women & children food gathering
  • Setting up temporary camps
  • Sharing meat & gathering vegetable food
  • Archeological records show homo Habilis hunter posed fairly high degree fo co-operation & some organised social activities

Phylogenetic Status –

  • Homo habilis is though to be the ancestor of the Lankier(tall) & more sophisticated Homo Ergester, which in turn gave rise to the more human appearing species, H. Erectus
  • However, few findings in 2007 , suggested that H. Habits also have co-existed with Homo erectus in Africa for a period of 0.5 mya & may be seperate lineage developed from a common ancestor instead of a H. Erectus which descended from H. Habilis

Why Homo habilis, not Australopithecus habilis

  • major criteria – brain size , high brain to body ration ; comparatively developed temporal lobes(memory), parietal lobes (info analysis), speech processing area 
  • Counter argument – teeth are larger than relative to body size , Limbs proportions show they are closer to Australia

At around 1.6 mya another specie found ; erectus ; how it got evolved so fast if it was evolved from habilis ; Possibility

  • rapid burst of change – aka Punctuated Evolution
  • Some relatively isolated habiline began to evolve into erectus at much earlier date leaving teh rest of their kind to continue unchgned & eventually go extinct about 1.6 mya

Conclusion – The time between 2 and 1.5 million years ago has been called the “crucial humanizing period” Recent fossil finds from this time have widened the debate as to how many species of hominids lived in Africa then, and who evolved into what. More fossils may serve to clarify the picture, or further to confuse

Homo erectus              

As per the evidence, Around 1.8 mya , 180 cm with slender leges & very little body hairs hominid originated in African. Later spread to all over the world &  outlived other hominids. It is the 1st undisputed member of genus – homo. It was found from 1.6 – 0.12 mya.

Time Period

  • Asia – 1.8 mya
  • S Africa – 1.8 mya
  • E Africa – 1 -1.6 mya

Distribution

  • In Africa
    • East Africa – Lake Turkana, Koobi fora, Nariokotome – Kenya & also Tanzanian – Leaky → full skeleton of a boy
      • E. Turkana (1.8 mya) – oldestest well dated H. Erectus, great amount of variation seen among individuals, possibly due to sexual dimorphism
      • Olduvai –  Ethiopia (1.4 mya) – large Individual, very robust. 
    • South Africa – Swartkrans (Leaky)
    • North Africa – Ternifine (Algeria) (→ lower Jaw, teeth) , Sale (Cranial from man) ;
  • Asia –
    • South East Asia – Indonesia ; by Dutch Paleoanthropolist Thomas Dubois → Java Man (Homo erectus javanicus)
      • Sangiran (1.6 mya) – many Cranial Mandible Fragments ; Java
        • First discovery of H. Erectus from anywhere; show dispersal out of Africa by 1.6 mya
      • Trinil – skull cap & femur d
      • India – Hathnora
    • East Asia – China (Homo erectus pekinensis) – discovered by Davidson Black
      • Lantian – Cranial
      • Zhaukoudian cave in North China – Teeth, cranial, post cranial
      • Peking 
  • Europe – Homo erectus heidelber-gensis
    • In 1907, from Sand pit at Mauer near Heidelberg, West – Germany → Mandible was discovered.

Characteristics Features

According to DK Bhattacharya, Homo erectus had successfully adapted to savannah grassland. These has both advanced & primitive features

  • Advanced Features
    • Cranial Capacity Range – 775 – 1421 cc
    • More anteriorly placed foramen magnum → erect posture
    • Dental Arches – Parabolic
    • All teeth same size & shape as modern man
    • Linea aspera present in femur
    • Sagittal absent
    • Parietal lobe well developed –language
  • Primitive Features
    • Slopping forehead
    • Prominent supra-orbitals
    • Angular occipital not round
    • Nasal area flatten
    • Larger Mandible – Prognathism
    • No chin
    • M1 is largest (in man M3 is largest)
  • Male had bigger faces with more massive brown ridge like Ape.

Cultural Features (Common to all homo erects)

Homo erectus population occupied different ecological niche and adapted to environmental challenges primarily through cultural means.

  • They had domesticated of fire,  group hunted big game such as elephants, wild bores, with the help of fire and used stone tools.
    • In French Riviera, at a site called Terra Amata, there is evidence of an artificial hut with hearths – and even a footprint – believed to be the handiwork of Homo erectus from 400,000 years ago.
  • As they hunted big game, they must have stronger social relations and some type of language for communication
  • They were nomadic people and had small population.
  • The Homo erectus man lived totally naked.
  • Cannibalism
  • Habitation – They were first cave dwellers (Peeking and oldavan)
  • Migration – First to migrate out of Africa
  • Tool Technology – They were tool maker and tool users.
    • belong to Chellean and Acheulian traditions of lower Paleolithic culture
    • Made of quartz ; bone & wooden tools & tools life spears also has been discovered
    • Bifacial Tools → Africa (Flakes)
    • chopper, chopping, hand axe, cleavers in initial phase. → Aisa
    • Calcitonin → Europe
  • Site, Kalambo falls in Africa → use of temporary wind break / Sheth
    • Oval huts in southern fence → Site Terra Amata (0.4 mya)
  • Hoebel suggest Cannibalism practiced by china man for ritualistic & survival purpose
  • Pilben – Development of language – symbolisation
  • Ritualistic & Religion

Phylogenetic Position –

  • PiL Beam & Napier based on fossils material assertion their phylogenetic position.
  • 3 branch theory of Alan Walker
  • Revised Model with Recent Discoveries

Judging by their duration of existence 1.7 mya to 0.12 mya we can conclude that Erectus was successful adopted group.

Asian Homo Erectus

Introduction – Though Homo-erectus was widely distributed in the world according to evidences it originated in Africa & moved to reach Asia.

Physical Features

CharacterJava Man (1.7mya – 0.9 mya)China Man (0.8 mya)
Cranial Capacity800 cc1075 cc
Cranial BonesNot so thick & MassiveThick & Massive
Cranial Index (BPD ✗ 100 / OFD)70.0 (Dolicho Cranial)72.2 (Dolicho Cranial)
ForeheadReceding backReceding back but show bump like development
Supra-orbitals heavy & continuous (fused) massive & fused but there is distinct furrow which separate forehead from supra-orbital region)
occipital Regionbroad & roundedNarrow & Elongated
DiastemaPresentAbsent
Molars & IncisorsLarger in sizesmaller in size
Linea asperaPresentNo Material evidence
PalateSmoothRough

Special Notes – The Homo erectus skeletal evidence at the “Peking Man” site of Zhoukoudian is especially important because it is from a population of men, women, and children rather than just a single individual.  There was considerable sexual dimorphism and individual variability

  • 1941 Japanese invasion of China
  • Franz Weidenreich

Homo floresiensis

  • In 2003, a team of Australian paleoanthropologists led by Peter Brown discovered a skeleton from what may be a dwarf Homo erectus or related species that lived until 18,000 years ago on Flores Island, Indonesia (in Liang Bua cave)
    • only site where the species has been found so far
  • This 30 year old adult female was only about 3 feet 6 inches tall (106 cm), 66 pounds (30 kg), and had a brain size of 380 cm3 (like those of australopithecines, barely 1/3 as big as modern human brains)

Nickname –  Hobbit

Features

  • Time Period – About 100,000 – 50,000 years ago.
  • A mound of bone around the eyebrow area
  • No chin. Instead the jaw slopes backwards.
  • Low skull, widest around the ears with a sloping forehead
  • Shrugged shoulders that face forward
  • The pelvis is like Australopithecus afarensis
  • Short legs make the arms appear long
  • Long feet compared to the Length of the legs.
  • Almost half the size of a Homo
  • The stone tools found associated with H. floresiensis are broadly similar to those found earlier on Flores and throughout the human evolutionary career. (I.e lower Palaeolithic tools in Asia or Oldowan tools in Africa)
  • They selectively hunted Stegodon (an extinct type of elephant)

Island dwarfism

  • The diminutive stature and small brain of H. floresiensis may have resulted from island dwarfism – an evolutionary process that results from long-term isolation on a small island with limited food resources and lack of predators.
    • Stegodon elephant also show the same adaption.

Phylogenetic (Evolutionary Tree Information)  – debate

  • most scientists now recognize H. floresiensis as a valid taxon and a human species distinct from Homo sapiens (modern humans).
  • Scientists are now trying to figure out exactly how H. floresiensis is related to other species in the genus Homo. For example, did H. floresiensis evolve from an earlier population of H. erectus, or did it evolve from a smaller species, such as the early humans found in Dmanisi (Republic of Georgia), or perhaps another early species of the genus Homo?

Homo erectus heidelber-gensis

Introduction – for quite some period of time, the presence of homo erectus in Europe has been questioned. However, in year 1907, a mandible (Lower jaw) was discovered. That confirmed the presence of Homo Erectus in Europe.

Time period – In year 1981, Stringer assigned date of 0.35 to 0.45 million years to this jaw

Physical Features of Jaw – called the Heidelberg jaw

  • is very massive, lacks chin, but the teeth are relatively small and resemble those of the Neanderthal man.
  • This jaw is believed to represent a transitional stage b/w Homo erectus  & Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis.

General Characteristics of Jaw

  • It had all its teeth in place.
  • The general profile is broad and square in shape.
  • Its breadth is more compared to that of the modern man.
  • Jaw thickness , angle of jaw (truncated), condyloid process (blunt & rounded) → it resembles the jaw of the Gibbon (apes)
  • Human Features
    • Parabolic detention arch
    • Ordinary size of teeth ; incisors Normal & canines don’t project
    • Dental series is continuous without a diastema as in the modern man.
  • The jaw displays more simian(ape) features whereas the teeth display more human features.

Phylogenetic Implications: Opinions vary as to whether the owner of the Mauer mandible, “Heidelberg Man”, was a representative of Homo erectus.

  • after excavation of Kabwe, Arago & Dali Fossils scholar came to conclude that they are perfectly homo erects fossils with big jaw.
  • Jaw’s similarities with neaderathal’s jaw → might indicate that European Homo Erectus evolved into Neanderthal people.
  • It’s was finally accepted as representative of homo erectus & ancestor to Neanderthal & finally Homo sapiens.

what in your opinion were the reasons for homo erectus spread from africa to europe and asia

Homo erectus were very successful in creating cultural technologies that allowed them to adapt to new environmental opportunities.  They were true pioneers in developing human culture and in expanding their geographic range beyond Africa to populate tropical and subtropical zones elsewhere in the Old World.  This territorial expansion most likely began around 1.8-1.7 million years ago, coinciding with progressively cooler global temperatures.  Surprisingly, however, Homo erectus remained little changed anatomically until about 800,000 years ago.  After that time, there apparently wereevolutionary developments in features of the head that would become characteristic of modern humans.  By half a million years ago, some Homo erectuswere able to move into the seasonally cold temperate zones of Asia and Europe.  This migration was made possible by greater intelligence and new cultural technologies, probably including better hunting skills and the ability to create fire.

Can it be considered direct ancestor of Homo sapiens

A few researchers have generally opposed the view that H. erectus was the direct ancestor of later species, including Homo sapiens. Louis Leakey argued energetically that H. erectus populations, particularly in Africa, overlap in time with more advanced Homo sapiens and therefore cannot be ancestral to the latter. Some support for Leakey’s point of view has come from analysis of anatomic characteristics exhibited by the fossils. By emphasizing a distinction between “primitive” and “derived” traits in the reconstruction of relationships between species, several paleontologists have attempted to show that H. erectus does not make a suitable morphological ancestor for Homo sapiens. Because the braincase is long, low, and thick-walled and presents a strong browridge, they claim that H. erectus shows derived (or specialized) characteristics not shared with more modern humans. At the same time, it is noted, Homo sapiens does share some features, including a rounded, lightly built cranium, with earlier hominins such as H. habilis. For these reasons, some paleontologists (including Leakey) consider the more slender, or “gracile,” H. habilis and H. rudolfensis to be more closely related to Homo sapiens than is H. erectus. These findings are not widely accepted, however. Instead, studies of size in human evolution indicate that representatives of Homo can be grouped into a reasonable ancestor-to-descendant sequence showing increases in body size. Despite having a heavier, more flattened braincase, H. erectus, most particularly the African representatives of the species sometimes called H. ergaster, is not out of place in this sequence.

Neanderthal

Introduction – Neanderthals were advanced humans, capable of intelligent thought process, were able to adapt & harshest env known to humans. They co-existed with modern human for long period of time before becoming extinct about 28,000 years.

Time Period – Lived b/w 300,000 years ago to 28,000 years

  • Early Homo neanderthalensis from about 300,000 years ag
  • classic Homo neanderthalensis from about 130,000 years ago
  • late Homo neanderthalensis from about 45,000 years ago.

Classification – Hooton Classified Neanderthals into 2 types ; depending up on differences in skull.

  1. Classical – represented by La-Chapelle-Aux -Saints
  2. Progressive – represented by Mt. Carmel

which are not conforming to the feature of classical were are named as Progressive

Distribution & Key specimens

  • Classical
    • Europe
      • 1st Discovered in 1856 at Neander Vally, Germany
      • France –
        • La Chappel Aux Saints by Boule , near Dusseldorf 
        • La Quina Cave
      • Belgium – spy Cave
      • Gibraltar – Devils Tower
    • Africa
      • Libya – Haua Ftech Cave
    • Asia
      • Iraq – Shanidar
      • Afghanisatan – Darra-I-Kut
  • Progressive
    • Asia – Israel – Mt Carmel
    • Europe –
      • Italy – Saccopastora
      • Yugoslavia – Krapina → human bones had been cut smashed & charred indicate cannablism.

Characteristics Features – Cranial Features

Distinguished based on their morphological features (mainly cranial features b/c Their post cranial features are almost same

Anatomical characterClassicalProgressive
Cranial Cavity1600 cc1400cc
Skulllarge & broadlong & less broad
Cephalic indexlowerhigher
Vault of skulllower (flatten)higher (high & well arched)
ForeheadReceding backreceding (less) ; but curved
occipital RegionProtruding & bun shapedless protruding & devoid of bun shaped
Supra Orbitals Ridge / Toruslarge & continuous (fused) large but not fused (tends to separate at median & lateral
Upper JawProjectingNot Projecting
NoseBroad & LargeLess Broad
Chin (c/l in living) / Mantle symphysisabsentPresent (Moderately development)
TeethLargeComparatively small I.e moderate
FaceUpper face is very long & Prognathusmedium to short ; usually orthognathus
skull surfaceRoughless Rough
OrbitsLarge in size &Moderate in size & rectangular in shape
Mendible is large & broade ; ramus is broadMendible is short and ramus is not so broad
Pelvic is short when it is compared with its breadthLow & narrow
Long bonesAre heavy as well as thickStout & robust
Lower limbsAre shortLong
Linea AsperacAbsent, but if present is weakly developIn fimber fully developed
Bent forwardFimer is flat & is not curved
they r imperfectly adapted to upright poster & bipadled locomotion 

Post Cranial Features – both were similar in these

  • Short in height.
  • Upright and erect posture
  • Limbs were shorter but stouter (heavy)
    • Humorous was short & strong with a large head like modern man.
    • Femur was strong with large head
    • Public bone of Neanderthal is wider than modern man
  • Vertebral column was short & stout.
  • Strong ribs indicating large thorax
  • Fingers were large & robust
  • Short & stout bones of skeleton with large area for powerful muscular attachment were characteristics of Neanderthal.

Cultural Characteristics

  1. Tool Technology & Tools – Flakes, points, burins & scrappers etc
  2. Bone of Rhinoceros & others are used as bowls, cups & storage containers
  3. Clothing – bone needs of European Fossils indicated Neanderthal tailored clothes to combat winters
  4. Habitation Resides in Caves 
  5. Language – earl
  6. Panting – recently discovered in Spanish Cave Painting dated using Ur-thorium dating technique suggest. They know art of paining
    • painting have pictures of animals & geometric signs.
  • Ritual Burials – First one in hominid to ritually buggy their dead. It indicates their belief in afterworld.
    • Evidence of flower burials were also found from Shanidar Site , Iran
  • Religion – 1st Primitive Origin of Religion

After going thr different aspects of physical & cultural traits we can conclude that Neanderthal represent mixture of primitive & modern traits.

Phylogenetic Status –

  • there are Various theories which proposes different phylogenetic evolution of Neanderthal & Man. Some of the most accepted evolutionary interpretations are as follows 
  • Although, Sweden Biologist, Svante Paabo, after testing moder than 70 Neanderthal specimen thr genetic study concluded that Neanderthals are ancestor of Homo sapiens.
    • There is around 99.7% similarity in genome of both the species.

Rhodesian Man

Introduction – In 1921, Tom Zwigelaar, Swiss minerdiscovered few bones of Skull & limbs at Broke Hill in Northern Rhodesia(Now Kabwe, Zambia), Africa. The fossils were complete cranium & skeleton related to 2 individuals was found. It is also called as Kabwe Man or Broken hill.

Time period – on Basis of dating of bones it was concluded that Rhodesian man lived during Pleistocene or Late Pliocene about 2 Lakh (0.2 mya) years ago.

Species Name

  • Arthur Smith Woodward  – assigned the specimens to a new species : Homo rhodesiensis
  • Today most Scientist Assign Kabwe to Homo heidelbergensis .

Rhodesian man is considered as transitional form / Primitive Homo sapiens b/c it have combined features of homo erectus & Homo sapiens.

Primitive Features – like Homo erectus

  • Low braincase profile (the area towards the back of the skull)
  • Supra orbital ridges are prominent & fused – like chimpanzee ; large than any other fossil form
  • Occipital & Sagitall region → abnormally extended ; similar to classic Neanderthals
    • Slight widening of the mid face known as the Sagittal Keel
    • Protrusion at the back of the skull c/l occipital torus
  • Forehead receding back
  • Maxilla & Palate are massive
  • Orbits are high & elongated
  • Face was muzzle like in appearance

Modern Features – resembles to modern man

  • With large brain having – Cranial Capacity – 1280 – 1400 cc
  • Flatter, less prognathic face
  • Foremen Magnum is anteriorly placed & occupies a central position indicating perfect balance of skull on VC & Upright posture.
  • Brain case is primitive but of human shape.
    • It is very long & relatively narrow.
    • Though vaulted shows human like expansion of parietal region.
  • Dentition – like modern humans ;
    • Teeth – small in size ;
    • canines reduced to level of other teeth
    • Moral have remarkable breadth in comparison to their length.
    • Pulp cavity are not enlarged.
    • Parabolic Arrangement
    • Diastema absent
  • Limbs, sacrum, pelvis, vertebral column & all other post cranial features were similar to modern man.
    • However are large & very robust with massive joints.

Hence, Rhodesian man exhibited both primitive & advanced features. This is example of  Asymmetrical Evolution.

Cultural Status

  • Some bone and stone implements along with broken bones of animals used as tools were also discovered.
    • The implements show similarities to those used by modern Bushman. 

Phylogenetic Status – African variety of Neanderthal

  • Woodward on the basis of the position of foramen magnum considers it to be human & assigns these as Homo rhodesiensis
  • Pycroft however feels that it did not have erect posture as is indicated by the Pelvis & assigned it to Cyphanthropus Rhodesiensis.
  • In opinion of Hooton, there is sufficient likeness b/w Neanderthal & Rhodesian man so as to regard the Rhodesiensis man as the variant of Neanderthal. Rhodesian man bifurcated from Neanderthal and proceeded to Modern Man.

Special Notes – This skull is one of the oldest known to have tooth cavities

  • They occur in 10 of the upper teeth.
  • The individual may have died from an infection r/l to dental disease or from a chorionic ear infection.

Homo sapiens

The modern Homo sapiens have been living on earth from about last 40,000 years. Modern fossils were obtained at several places in different parts of the globe but the importance places are cromagnon in France, Grimaldi in Italy & Chanchelede in France.

Cro-Magnon Man

Introduction – In 1868, M. LouisLartet discovered 5 skeletal from a Cro-Magnan Village in south Western France. The age of this fossil was around 30k-40k years. & were associated with Aurignecian culture i.e Worked with bone & stone tools of upper Palaeolithic during late Pleistocene epoch

Age Period : Thus associated finding belong to upper Paleolithic.

Physical Features

  • ~ 6 feet height (180 cm)
  • Cranial capacity – 1550 to 1650 cc ; 150cc more than modern European Average
  • dolicocephhlalic skull (i.e relatively long)
  • [Disharmonic skull-long narrow skull with broad short face]
  • Pentagonal in outline due to the presence of characteristic prominent parietal tuberosities
  • Small brow ridges,
  • Forehead is broad & moderately high
  • Marked prognathism with distinct chin.
  • Both front & cheek teeth are smaller.
  • Lower leg is longer than thigh & forearm longer than the upper arm
  • Femur with developed Linea aspera suggesting strong musculature.
  • Efficient bipedal walking

Cultural characters

  • Rock shelter & pit dwellings.
  • Tools include Bow & Arrow, spears, harpoons, Axes with Handles.(New devices).
  • Method of food storage, improved hearth, cloth, animal fossils indicated a systematic & planned hunting.
  • Cave paintings about symbolically coded information, about belief system etc. Sculptures on rocks, Venus figurines. gastos
  • Burial with associated goods. Burials with goods show change in belief pattern & existence of social class.
  • Used to hunt mammoth cave bear; woolly Rhinoceros.
  • Evidence of camp sites with dense population of hunters and gatherers.

Phylogeny

  • Evolutionary possibilities of Cro-Magnon man are unclear. Fossils similar to it have been found in Africa (Omo Basin) & West Asia (QATZCH & SKHUL) and they are dated around 1 lakh years ago.
  • none of the European fossils are older than 40,000 years,
  • Acc to some , Cro-Magnon man extinct in upper Palaeolithic. But some other argue that they continue to present day.
  • People with such characteristics can be found today at Dordogne & Canary Island (France). The Ranchos of canary island best represent the Cro-Magnon type.

Garimaldi Man

Introduction – Found from a cave called Grotte des enfants in Garimaldi Village near Mentone in Italy resembling modern days Negroids & associated with remains of Aurignacian culture.

Physical Features

  • Cranial capacity: 1265-1450 cc
  • Skull – hyperdolicocephalic – long, narrow & high
  • Elliptical Contour due to flattened parietal region (No parietal tuberosities
  • Face – long & triangular in outline
  • Bulging forehead.
  • Poorly developed supraorbital ridge
  • Rectangular eye orbits
  • Nose depressed at the root – i.e Platyrrhini (broad nose)
    • The Bridge is low & broad & Nasal aperture is extremely broad
  • Prognathism is present
  • Palate: Narrow and high palate
  • Jaws strong & protruded
  • Poorly developed chin
  • Teeth are large & resembled Ausbaloids
    • Upper molar have 4 well developed cups. Lower molar 5 well developed cups.
  • Limbs
    • Forearms & lower legs are very long in relation to upper arms & thigh.
    • The Hind limbs are very long in comparison to fore limbs.

Cultural Features: Aurignacian culture of upper Paleolithic similar to Cro-Magnon man

Special Notes – As Negroid characters are particularly well developed in the Grimaldi. Hence it is supposed to represent a late incursion of African race into European territory whereas Cro-Magnon on the other hand had diluted Negroid characters. Hence, it (Cro-magnon) is supposed to have made incursions into Europe much in advance & to have undergone sufficient hybridization with local population.

Phylogeny

  • are commonly accepted of evidence of Negroid race in Europe in Aurignacian times.
  • many disagree – say are simply variants of Mediterranean race now inhabiting southern Europe
  • Smith & Keith have concluded that Grimaldi represents the primitive type of Cro-Magnon stock & Negroid resemblance may be just a coincidence. Both inlog Cro-Magnon & Grimaldi belong to the late Pleistocene & represent early populations of Europe.

Chancelede Man

Introduction – In 1808, A human skeleton with its arms folded on its rest its chest region & kness just touching the jaw was unearthed was discovered in The Rock Shelter NearChancelede (France) . These fossils resembled modern days Eskimo & belonged to magdalenian period which succeeded aurignacian & solutrean culture.(Upper Palaeolithic Culture.

Physical Features

  • Cranial capacity: 1500-1700 cc
  • Cranial index – dolicocephalic
  • Long and Broad Skull
  • Skull vault is high (well arched)
  • No Progmathism (Typical Feature of Eskimos); well-developed Chin, broad rami, narrow body
  • Dolichocephalic head with developed sagittal crests, parietal tuberosities & cheek bones.
  • Forehead almost vertical
  • Orbits – large & quadrilateral in shape.
  • Long and vertically elongated (narrow) nose – Leptorrhini
  • Limb bones – strong and massive indicating strong muscular body – feature of Modern Eskimos,
    • differentiates from Cro-Magnon & Grimaldi.
    • Upper limbs – comparatively longer than lower limbs
  • Larger feet with 1st metatarsal distinctly separated from 2nd toe like in Neanderthal man.

Cro-Magnon man & Chancelede man – don’t differ greatly. only difference is

  • Cro-Magnon was much taller with disharmonic skull & rectangular  orbits
  • Chancelede man had harmonic skull and quadrilateral orbits.

Cultural Status: Magdalenian Culture of upper Paleolithic

Phylogeny

  • On the basis of physical & cultural similarities b/w Eskimos & Chancelede it is claimed that following the retreat of the ice sheet towards north at the closure of glacial age, chancelede had given rise to Eskimos as it moved from Europe to North America.
  • Hooton argues that their resemblances are more with the skulls of 12th century ice-landers of Norway & Irish Origin.

Introduction– ____ is a hominin fossil that was described from ______ found in _______ in _____ by ____