Palaeolithic In India

Definition – Cultural debbrise from entire period of Pleistocene (3mya-10,000 BC) is termed as Palaeolithic .In India (0.5 mya to 10,000 BC)

Climate – characterised by major climatic fluctuations; 4 phases of glaciation in north & pluviations in the south punchuated by 3 phases of dry seasons

Glaciation & inter glaciation in Europe & American; (GMRW)
1. Gunz
2. Mindal
3. Riss
4. Wiirm
Pluvial(heavy rain fall) & Interpluvial in tropical region like South & East Africa (K3G
1. Kangeran
2. Kamesian
3. Kanjeron
4. Gamblian

Research & Discovery – First palaeolithic stone tool in India – Discoverer Robert Bruce Foote in 1863. Pallavaram (First palaeolithic cultural site.) Present in Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

research got a boost – ‘Yale Cambridge Expedition’ in 1935 led by H. De terra and Patterson. (to give chronology – choose Patwar Plateau (b/c entirely lacustrine depositional bed 2. already worked )
- Man has been living in India for 500,000 ya (.5mya) & overall around 3mya but no human fossil have been found in Indian lower Palaeolithic
- Come up with Himalayan Glaciation
  - Tatrot – b/c
  - Pinjore – first Inter Glaciation
  - TD – Bolder conglomerate
  - T1 – 2nd Glaciation
  - T2 – 2nd Interglaciation
  - T3 – 3rd
  - T4

Tools & Regional variation World

Age	Sites			Tool			Associated Human Species
Age	Europe	Africa	Asia (spl India)	Tech	Tool Types	Material	Associated Human Species
Lower (500K-50k )	Clacton-on-sea (England)Terra Amata, Abbeville, St. Acheule & Levallois (France)	olduvai Gorge (Tanzania)		Low expenditure of energy in mfg (1° fabricat)- DirectHammer- Rock on Rock- Step flaking	Pebble ToolsCleaver, Handaxe, chopper-chopping	Quartzite (India)	Homo erectus
Middle (50k-40k)	Mousterian (Neanderthal), Site la Mouster, France	Kenya & Uganda		Cylinder Hammer	Flake Tools(Awls, points, side scrapers)	Cryptocrystallne silica eg. flint, chart, agate, jasper etc	Homo Neanderthal
Upper (40k-10k)	Peridordian & Aurignancean followed by Solutrecian & Magdalenian cultures	Kenya & Uganda		Punch flaking also used	Blade & Bone tools(Blacked blade, knives, Burin, end scraper, harpiins)	Lithic – quartz, flint etcNon lithic– bones, ivory, homs	Homo sapiens

Compound techniques – Clactonian Flacking, Levallois technique (tortoise flakes)

Division

In India. Upper Palaeolithic period is Not as distinct as found in Europe ;
but in recent excavation sites it emerged
So, division in 3, Early stone age or lower, middle, upper palaeolithic

Regional Variations in India

Conclusion – In India, parallels of lower palaeo & middle palaeo found all over the country but same is not true for the later cultures. Bone tools are not frequentrly found (weren’t there or acidic soil of area engulfed them – not known) Significant period -> Evolution from H. erectus to H. sapiens

Lower Palaeolithic

Indian lower palaeolithic can neither be arranged in any definite sequence or chronological order nor should be considered as a uniform cultural stage.

Climate – Gunz Mindel Glacial (europe) & 2nd Interglacial ; Kangeran & Interpluvial b/w Kangeran & Kamasian in South & East Africa – cover greater part of ice age

Time Period – (500K-50k) & Lower Pleistocene epoch – early upper Pleistocene (in India)

Human Species – Earliest period of human culutral developemt built by Homo erectus

Tool Technology – (Primary fabrication)-

Direct Percussion or Stone Hammer – Rock on Rock
Simple Controlled Tech or Step Flaking -Rock on Rock
Clactonian Tech- flakes of considerable longer dimension removed
levalloise Tech
Anvil on Anvil Tech
Cylinder hammer tech

Tool Material – Quartzite (India)

Tool Type -Pebble Tools,

chopper-chopping – cutting or chopping
Handaxe – digging & Piercing
Cleaver, – digging, skinning, piercing

Purpose of tools –

Patterson – tools from Soan valley– for cutting & chopping, digging & skinning
Zeuner – handaxes must have been used for digging out edible roots, cutting, boring & piercing, chopping & cleaving & skinning

Tools – 1st tools found in Olduvai gorge of Tanzania

Sociocultural Activites

Food & gathering & Hunting – nomad
Homo erectus is associated with this culture
Intra group cooperation for hunting – hunting of large animals
Invention of fire (Acc. to Bhattacharya, 1984 gathering around fire for equal tradition benefits → helped in consolidating social bonds ) – ( in case of India in middle Palaeolithic)
group living / cave living (Olduvian, Peking)
Naked
Settlement near source of water (absence of pottery)
Cannibalism

Narmada & Soan valley show continuity of habitation o& changes by indigenous experience.

Region & Sites

Sites located near water sources, lived in rock shelters & caves, rarely in huts of leaves (Thousand of settlements were found at coastal area all over India except Kerala and alluvial planes of the Indus and the Ganga.

All evidence are of stone tools, no human fossils found; may be due to acidic soil

Sites in Europe – Ambrona, Terra amata, Escala

Conclusion

Tentatively, LP in India can be accepted as emerging around early upper Pleistocene. Even this late beginning was not universal for whole continent, like western zone that might have been site of late colonisation. Central region (Narmada, Mahanadi, krishna) was most densely populated. Abbevillian types purely intruded into Acheulian type. Acheulian type in India has to be much younger than of France. Estimate of this range from .1mya to 60,k years.

lived near source of water & raw materials (mainly stone) source & peripheries of Forests(hunting) – imp determining ; not high altitude or dense forests

Middle Palaeolithic (0.1 mya – 40k)

recognised as independent cultural phase only after 1960- earlier not b/c of absence of proper stratigraphic evidences

1956 – Prof. Sankalia demonstrated flake tools in depositions of Pravara river near Nevasa,
incidentally most imp site in MH region & spl river valley of Godavari & tributaries

Climate – Beginning of Warm Glacial (europe) , best understood in europe during Mousterian times , adaptation to the cold may have included anatomical change (Larger nose of Neanderthals – helped to bear bitterly cold )

Time Period – (.1mya-40,k ) & Middle Pleistocene to upper Pleistocene epoch – late upper Pleistocene (in India) : Mousterian in Europe lasted only 40k to 60k.

Human Species – Homo Neanderthal Man

Tool Technology -flake culture Mousterian (Major)Flake technology & also Percussion tech of lP continued ; flakes made by following

Simple controlled tech of Step flaking
Pressure flaking or Levellosian Tech (careful preparation of the core , so that flakes could be struck in pre-shaped forms. – longer sharper cutting edge than previous methods

5 Distinct general tool tradition in Mousterian France Mousterian artifacts are often composite tools, having several parts

Typical Mousterian Assemblages – rarely contain hand axes , mostly scrapers & points made with care
Quina Ferrassie (or Chrentian) Assembages – dominated by scrapers , some for extremely specialised func.
Denticulate Mousterian Assemblages – rich in fine toothed (or deniculate ) tools. But hand axes, points & scrapers are either -nt or poor quality
Mousterian of the Acheulean Tradition -evolves from earlier (type A – numerous hand axes & varied flake fools,) to later (type B- few hand axes or scrapers but many denticulates or knives)
Micoquian Tradition – lance shaped hand axes, often with concave edges & thick bases.

Some archeologist see them as the product of a single culture occupying varying env. & carrying on different activities.

Tool Material – change of raw material ; smooth & bright rocks such as flint to lesser extent Jasper & chalcedony , occasionally fine grained quartzite

Tool Type – Flakes tools so smaller & lighter

Pointers ( in La-Mausterian (France) points are in leaf shape)
scrapers
Borers
handaxe, cleaver along with some chopper-chopping tools & some blades

presence of scrapes & borers disturbing – why these in food gathering economy
- HD Sankalia – perhaps these used in fabricating some other tools made up of wood, bone & horn etc – non lithic material- not survived

Socio-Cultural

food gather & Hunter & increased efficiency due to lighter & sharper tool kit
Main hunting animal reindeer → indicate cold climates
large animal hunting – group coordination essential – later led to kinship
Still dependent on nature but had acquired knowledge of fire ( evidence in India are not as strong as in Europe)
division of labor based on age & sex
group living – highly egalitarian society with least amount of profession – Band org most common
caves & rock shelters along banks of river & streams (Now systematically used for dwelling for first time, sometime on semi permanent bases)
Cannibalism– ex. Mt carnol cave Art
Evidence of earliest oranamental objects from Mousterian groups
Belief in supernatural power eg. cave bear skulls
Ritual Burial : Presence of flowers & tools in burials ex in Shanidar (Iraq) , In Le Moustier France , young buried with animal bones & stone tools. In La caapelle-au Saints in a small grave carved out of the rocky floor surrounded with bits of quartz, Jasper & red ochre. (Red may be life giving connotations of blood)
ML art studied by Mishra in Bhimbetka

Feature of Indian Middle Palaeolithic

lack of primary sites – don’t enable reconstruct past
Distinctiveness of different industries – localisation & concn of evidence – referred as Central & Deccan Indian Phenomenon
complete change of raw material- utilised by diffusionistic theoreticians – however neither universal over subcontinent nor uniform to particular material
Dominance of flake tools – which emerged in Lp
Mode of development – certain industries were influenced by outside culture, while others were developed locally ex.
- Indian Desert zone – similar – Mousterian Afganistan ; Mh & KN come close to it as adopted levalloise
- kurnool to 36 gh – locally developed
- Narmada 2 distinct varieties – means habitat by 2 different groups
  1. Bhimbetka – Mousteroid Varieties – without changing raw material
  2. Shivna to Damoh – variety with change in raw material, but containing handaxes, cleaver
composition of tool kit – scraper & borer dominates
typological spectrum – from diverse sites
- side scrapers of large variety
- sharp points with triangular
- borers with thick & sturdy body which Sankalia termed as ‘scraper cum borers’ ( borer showing broad & open notch)
- retouched blades, burins & end scrappers
- handaxes, cleavers, choppers, chopping tools

Region	Sites	Characteristics
International	France La-Chappel Aux La- QuinaSpine Pasiega Palatine Mt Carmel IraqShanidar	Points in shape of leafs 64000 old paintings (recently discovered worlds oldest painting) Cave art indicating cannibalism flowers in burials
North India	Soan Valley Belan Valley, Allahabad, UP	Thin, slender & more blades like clactonian flake toolsflake tools, hand axes, clevers & chopping tools
Western India	Luni Industry by V.N Mishra	flake tools borers & pointsvery high quality tools which are repeatedly reworked flakes
Central Region	Nevasian Cultural complex by Sankalia in MH & KN Suregoan (MH) MP & Bundelkhand best representation along , Narmada, Betwa, Shivna, Chambal Bimbetka (Vindhya MP) – VN Mishra36 ghar & chota Nagpur Bhegaghat – Sheila Misra (1993) – Narmada Near Jabalpur	Most rich Levalloise tech – well marked flake tools, blades, boles, thin leaf poin small hand axe made on chert , clevers, choppers, flint tools, flake tools ( scraper representative) levalloise tech well marked but not as NevadaRock shelters/caves with largest no. of cave paintings in world (500 out of 700) 5 layer ML & 4th UP of IIF23lose identity & merges with upper P.
South India	AP – don’t record clear stratigraphic context Renigunta, Hiddalore, Nagarjunkonda (AP)Kurnool by Cammidae Gudain (TN) Attripakam	Quartzite material extensive use of cylinders hammer tech Round scrapers, burin most common Cave living
Eastern India	Purelia (WB) Singhbhum (Bihar)	Specially flake tools, scrapers, borers & burins

Upper Palaeolithic

climate – Comparatively warm climate (cold climate)

Time Period – (36k-9k – 3% of lP ) & upper Pleistocene – last phase of Great ice age – imp fact drawn – in journey of cultural evolution, the more man advanced, the less is duration of coming cultural phase of increasingly imp & radical cultural achievements

Human Species – Homo spaiens (cromagnum – named after site in France)

soon slowly differentiate culturally & biologically -> different race with different culture

Tool Technology – (best known sequence exist in Europe spl France)

Pressure flaking or Levellosian Tech
Transverse & longitudinal cutting
lateral chipping

Tool Material –

Lithic stone – Jasper & chalcedony , occasionally fine grained quartzite
Non lithic- bone, ivory, horn etc (specially by Mousterian)

Tool Type – harpoons, arrow head, bone owl & blades (blade & burins culture) Blade Technology (Rich in blades

Blades – long, thin flakes with parallel sides. Blades have been produced by 3 different ways –

Hammering a chisel like instrument against a stone that was steadied on top of large rock
Punching vertical slices out of a prepared rock with a long pointed tool steadied against the toolmaker’s chest.
Tradition stone against stone percussion flaking.

Blades : predictable & standardised size – little retouching to made specialised tool , which are borers, burins (chisel groves), end scrapers (sharped on both side rather than one side (as in Mousterian side scrapers)), Notched blades, backed blades (one end dull & other sharpened)

Bow & arrow for first time in this period

Tool Tradition of Upper Palaeolithic in Europe

Perigordian or Chantelperron
- In France, deposits show a gradual transition from Mousterian to Perigordian Industries
- existed from 35kto 18K, Probably evolved from Mousterian of Acheulean tradition
- Mixture of Mousterian + Levalloisian +Blade culture
- Tools
  - Early Perigordian Tools – Curved pointed blades with blunt back (Chatelperton points ) – Curved blades
  - Late Perigordian Tools – Straight sided
Aurignacian (Blade Burin Culture)
- Lated from 33k to 25k – About the same time of Perigordian (but after 25 k only Perigordian existed)
- Origins & spread still mystery , but some suspect may have been introduced from Middle East
- Great use of blades
- Beginning ofmicroliths
- Bow tool
- Ornaments
- Spearhead bow
Gravathian Tradition (22k to 18k) ( As acc to vivek Bhasme earlier cultures were not simultaneous, but one after another
- Marked by use of blunt black Ionies
- Bone + Ivory pins
- Ornaments of bone, ivory, wood, stone
- Use of bone, ivory, stone for figurines
- Figurines : Female with eanlarged buttocks, breast, stomach (fertility). It shows symbolism.
Solutrean Tradition (18k-16k)
- After 18k the Late Perigordian was replaced in France by short lived
- Origin is still mysterious : may be form some holdover from some Mousterian tradition which continued to evolved into isolation before spread across a limited range of Europe; also vanished mysteriously as had appeared
- Flint working tech advanced to peak
- magnificent laurel leaf blades
- Sharpened bone needle with pierced eye at one end – sewing skins into some type of clothing
- Bow & arrow
Megdalenian Tradition (16k -10k)
- Around 10k replaced by Mesolithic Period
- Bone & horn tools
- Stone-long blade prismatic in cross section with parallel side.
- Jevellian points
- Machine – spear thrower

Socio-Cultural & Major Developments

Demise of Neanderthal & appearance of modern man
expansion of human into most of the worlds inhabited area including the New world & Australia
Division of labor emerged based on age & sex with increasing complexity
Prominent Palaeolithic Art (cave + home) -sudden & widespread appearance of figurines (spl female) & other artifacts reflecting art & rituals – give idea of development of human imagination
Ritual Burials – rites & rituals
lived in rock shelters due to cold climate (more settled existence & larger group size probably c/a for some form of political authority. – Europe evi-some buried with great ceremony than other -> leadership role -influence other through the force of their personalities.
decided step -> kinship organisation (DK Bhattacharya, ibid)
appearance of large no. of bone tools including eye needles, harpoons & other fishing tools
early sign of religion can extracted from fact that paintings started appearing deep inside cave ex. Bagor river excavation found shrine type sand str. of a circular platform consisting of concentric triangle which are believed to be worshipped.
- In France & Spain, engraved bone & antler implements, low relief clay sculptures, carved statuettes, cave drawings, & multicoloured paintings reached peak of sophistication during Magdalenian
Eur – Frequent evidence of forest fire – may be intentional -> easier to sight & trap large games or productivity of land for fruits like berries

Changes mainly found in European UP & Indian can’t compared with it as independent & clearly distinct cultural stage – due to scanty or total absence of subtype specialisation like bisque burin or Noailles burins (Bhattacharya) & bone & art, which form major characters tics in europe, are largely absent in India

Region	Sites	Characteristics
International	France (Dordonge Valley)La-AurognaeLa-MagnaleneSolutreGermany,Spain	Blade & Burnie cultureEngrawing non-lithic tools
North India	Belan Vally (Allahbad -UP)Basauli & Lakhania (UP)	By GR SharmaTools female figurine curved on bone(first of its type from IUP, similar fingurins kn as Venus found European UP Rock Shelters with paintings
Central India	Bhimbetka (MP)Bagor (MP)HoShangabad & Wainganga	Burins made on thick blade flak tols & differnet types of scraper found Cave III F-23 continuty from LP to UPcave paintings Habitation site with worshipping place (Shrine) Circular platform of sand stone blocks which as concentric triangles at centresimilar stones are used even today by locals to worship mother goddess.Blade & Burin Industries
Western India	Borivili & KondviliJalagaonBarod	Blade & burin industryearlier objects of ornaments namel engraved ostrich egg shell fragments Blades & burins
South India	Renigunta , Chittor , APMuchchatta Chintamanu Gavi – Kurnool -AP Kurnool, Vemula (Kedapa)	by M.L.K Murthy – large no. of blade – > entirely based on blade tool manf – representative tools o UPprepared on fine grained olive green quartzite but of late stone age on milky quartzakin to generalized EAst-Gravettian of Central Europeby Murthy – a special place b/c first bone tool (90% of all) made on bone, horns & other non lithich material are – scrapers, chisels, orers, barbs & spatulaanimals like Antilope, Bublus, felix were used to acquire bonesAcc. to Sankalia – these bones show evidence of Grove & Splinter techBlade & burin industries
East India	Singbhum (JH)	Tools

Conclusion – upper Palaeolithic is very late phenomenon in India. However, except certain types of tools, no major variations can be reported from European counterpart

Migration to New World – except bitterly cold climate, Siberia was probably fairly attractive to Stone Age hunters. Adjusted to cold by wearing warm, fitted clothing & shoes & large heated dwellings. -> in upper Palaeolithic due to adaptation, population increased beyond the ability of area -> about 30k group started to migrate into previously untapped ecosystem of Beringia, the land mass that connected Siberia & western Alaska. Which was temporarily exposed as expanding glaciers trapped normally circulating water as ice & caused sea levels to drop. These migrations were cutoff about 10,000 years as the last glacial maximum ended & sea level rose, covering land bridge. (Reached USA in around 18k & SA around 16k)

Uniqueness of Indian Palaeolithic

nowhere in the world chopper chopping tools of the pebbles in the hand X cleavers have been found together except India eg. Chaubtra of Soan valley (Uniqueness of Soan Culture) – indicative of two population together
Geographically spread is widest in India North(Soan) to south(madrasian) & east (Juliana) to west (Didwana, Nevasa)
Comparatively late in appearance as compare to the world Palaeolithic ( late by .5 my)
Comparatively more culturally diverse and regional variation
Continue tea of cultures are found simultaneously example Bhimbetka
both glacial (Soan) and pluvial (Madrasian) sites are found
Most of the tools found or surface tool who is chatting is difficult hence dating is done on the basis of tool type and technology
Vast cultural diversity eg. Soan (chopper chopping culture) & madrasian (Hand axe, cleaver culture) Also at the same time comparative details between the two sitse are present
Palaeolithic art of the upper Palaeolithic is unique feature of Indian Palaeolithic
Fossils only Narmada Man
Upper Palaeolithic: bone tools are only found at one site eg. Machltal Chintamani Gavi
Highly acidic soil most of the fossil evidence are not found

Mesolithic

climate – Earliest holocene epoch, dry period started (so, melting of ice -> formation of river & opened huge tracks of land for forest dev. ), drastic change in ecology, game rich tundra turned into temperate forest

Time Period – (10k-4k )transition b/w UP & Neolithic (i.e beginning of agri-but it didn’t begin everywhere at same time so it expands & shrinks)

Human Species – Early Homo spaiens

Tool Technology – Mircrolithic (1-8cm) blades detacted by pressure flaking from cylinderical cores : main identification

Indirect flaking
Micro-burine tech

composite tools hafted in wood or bow
tools are geometrical & non geometrical in shape
Basic principle of shading the mass drastically – invention of the bow & arrow attributed to this principle
Reason of evolution of microliths – fishing & fowling replaced large mammal hunting

Tool Material –

stone material – Heamatite, chalcedony, chert, agate, carnelian & occasionally quartz
wood fossile – Birbanpur
Bones – shoulders of rhinocerous, antlers, ivory (antlers are rarely used in Indian Mesolithci)
Haematite rubed & spheriacal stone balls used as sling bolas – imp feature

Tool Type –

Geometrical Microliths such lunates, triangles, semi-triangles, trapezes, roundish, rectangular or square scrapers
Handaxes completely absent

Socio-Cultural & Major Developments : climate started to change which is reflected in change in socio-cultural life. – Some see it as cultural degeneration when compared with UP – no representational art as evidence ; In new forest ecosystem the density of animals were less than tundra -> caused people to live & hunt in smaller social groups or bands, & to use new weapons & tools ; & each source of food was exploited more fully ( In Near East, Mexico & probably china Mesolithic adaptation leads to domestication of plants & animals ; also fishing along with hunting , beginning of food production mark its end, so vary in various parts

Hunting entails man to change took kit -> adaptaion of microliths
Domestification of animals – base for rise agri. in neoliberal
dominance of non lithic tools ex. Sholder blade of Rhino at Langhnaj
clothing emerged from skin of animals
evidence of partial sedentism – Wind breaker (Bagor & bhimbhatka), Wind screen (Langhnaj), Rock Shelters(Bhimbetka)
community cooking (in SNR – living floor of 5*4 m with 4 post holes in 4 corners)
concrete from river bed used for pave the living floor
evidence of pottery – wheel made – Bagor & Bhimbetka
Evidence Human creativity & imagination (agony or ecastacy) – Mesolithic art – cave art depicting various facets of human life like hunting., fishing, inter group rivalry & human agression. (Mirzapur, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh – i.e mainly MP)
Use of beads & ornaments – belief in afterlife
Evidences of intergroup fightings ; from microlith in rib of skelton in SNR
microliths can only be used as composite tools – hafted in wood or bovine jasw – evidence from abroad not from india
Mesolithic Man started making Pots
- First pot (handmade) in world – Chopani Mando (UP)
Jadeite, may have been brought from China. Found in Daojali Hading near Brahmputra Valley

The systematic & scientific work on the mesolithic was started only by Sankalia’s excavation at langhnaj in Gj. in early 40s. Even most of the microliths traces western origin through corridors like Tharo hill in sindh or Quetta valley near Rawalpindi in Pak. – but not enough to prove it as corridor.

Region	Sites	Characteristics
Western India	Langhnaj, Mehsana District GJ, along the western bank of Sabarmati River	By H.D Sankalia dated around 2040 +110 BC kn by Radio dating of Phase I & II Sankalia identified 2 main layers along 3 distinct culural phases ; Phase 1 include Mircoliths, burials, pot shreds, animal bones Rhino shoulder blade ; used as anvil for manufacturing microlithsA tangled iron arrow head, stone bead, & some fragments of stone quern are other cultural materials Associated with microliths occurs a soft hematite piece & several hammer stones Burials 14 burials in crouching posture with some tools as part of burial ceremonycuts on forehead – beliefe in existance of cannibalismthese skelton generated a lot of controversy about racial affinities of people contemporary of Harappan (100-200 km – flow blown stellment) unfari trade deal it proves rigit, cut & dried cultural chronologies can be misleading Determining role near urban settlement of hunting gatherings
	BaghorOn river Kothari near Bhilwara town locally name – Mahasati Mound show character of repeated reoccupation until medieval periodimp & extensive site best studied in subcontinent acc. to AGrawal, ibid imp c. perfect symmetry of tools from & high standard of craftsmanship	By Mishra in 1967 – identified 3 phase RD – 4600 BCAnimal remains & microlithcopper tools, pottery, microliths iron implements, wheel made, pot shreds Domestication of animals : 80% animals remains of domesticated stone paved floor Tools – lithic Ind. richest in world & finest (2cm -1.5cm) – blunted black blades, trapezes, crescent, points etc Flakes type (scrapers or burins) – totally-ve main material – quartz & chertmass P microblades-> various microlithic formsBurials – +nce of grave good like earthen vessels, ornaments, metal in first phase – body laid extended position- head towards westlater – drastic change – flexed position- head towards east
	Tilwara (Western most) Barner District RJ	By V.N Misra in 1971 & noted 2 distict phasesOlder phase – Mesolithic SettlementYounger Phase – with iron glass heads, wheel made pottery Trapeze, Lunates, Points, parrlel sided blades, fluted coresFire hearths, charred bones & circular arrangment of stones
North India	Sarai Nahar Rai (Allahabad- Pratapgarh UP)Early alluvial spread of Ganga	By GR sharma fire hearth with charred bones near them microlithis – trapezoid, points, crescents, lunates & trianges community cooking : living floor of 5*4 m with 4 post holes in 4 corners – pre- pottery culture : complete absence of pottery Faunal remains: domestication of animals seen (remains of goat, Buffalo, cattle etc) inter group fight – microliths embeded in ribs one skeleton Burrials inside habitation (+nce of hearth) – head towards west with forearms diagonally placed across abdomen
	Mirzapur (last Vindhyas limit)	Rock paintings
	Dam Dama & Mahadaha (Pratapgarh UP)	Bone tools, human burials & skeletal remains – includes bangles, pendants, stone fragments Microliths – prepottery & geometric
Central India	Bimbetka	Out of 8 layers top 3 belongs to Mesolithic dates roughly at 5000 BC microliths in floor – much larger size paintings on wells & ceiling contains burials- but extremely fragmented shift of raw material to chalcedony devoid of any pottery wind shield or screen near mouth of cave (ecological adaptation)
Central India	Adamgarh, Near Hoshangabad	Microliths(geometric but bit cruder) such as lunates, blades, scraper, borer etc Pottery remains found Domestication of animals found (dog, Buffalo, goat etc)
Eastern India	Birbhan pur , WBon river damaodar	By BB lal in 1957 post holes fro covering pits no evidence of burials, hearth , bonesindustry seems archaic as big flakes & blade tool dominates
	Kuchai	reported microlithic horizon without any ceramics
	Burdwan, Bankura & Purulia	Microliths found in association wtih black & red ware pottery , ring stones or even iron slags
South Indiageometrical elements are either absent or very minor Quartz main material allowed only a crude blade tech.	Teri (TN) – along fossilized sand dunes	First by Robbert foote -> Aiyappan then Zeuner made detailed report chalcedony, quartz & dossile wood in typologicaly sense – most primitve features close resemblance with Sri Lankan microliths (Bandarawela sites) – tradition of bifacially pressure flaked points
	Sanganakallu (KN)Biggest occurance of microlithic(slender & long) from KN	By Subbarao in 1949 & Sankalia in 65-66microliths like flakes (both utilized & retouched )blades arre not recovered at all Radio carbon date estimates around 3500 BC

It is not clear whether microliths were the result of some external influence or developed out of earlier stone industries. The prolific distribution of the industry not only in india, but all over the world in Europe, Africa & Asia points to some cultural link.

It si also held by some scholers that probably a new race of people from Africa entereed India with these implements.

Contribution of Mesolithic to Rise of Neolithic

early domestication of the animals in the plant in the later period -> full fledged in Neo -> surplus
M. adaptation such as sedentism, population size & use of plant food – evidence of transition to agri
Climate change from ice to dry continued – vast land
Substantial settlement str. Of Baghor (meso) evoluted into semi or permanent in neo
Perfection of tools tech & craftsmanship of Mesolithic later got developed and help me Neolithic man to clear extensive track forest
Pottery making started in later period of Mizo lithic which later become the hallmark of new lithic Revolution
Wild seed collection practice of the Mesolithic are precursor stage for domestication of the plant & agriculture

Mesolithic in North America – divided into 2 parts

desert tradition-arid western region (9k – until European contact) &
Archaic tradition – eastern woodland (9k -4/3k) – env. Like Europe – semi nomadic like desert t. But later due to great wealth of resources – left wandering for more selected existence

In Europe & In North America north of Mexico , Mesolithic did’t lead to the independent development of agriculture . May be plant & animals that could be domesticated were absent there. In addition, the population density never have been so high as to make food production necessary.

Neolithic

mark great tech & economic change in society than earlier- First Revolution (food gathers to food producers) in Mankind by V.G Childe ; He termed it Neolithic Revolution was coined in his 1936 book Man Makes Himself.

L.H. Morgan described it as Primitive Communism b/c source of production were social/community owned -> no private property

Chief four features of Neolithic : (1) Agriculture Practice (2) Domestication of animals (3) Polishing Stone tools (4) Pottery Manufac

Agri due to some combination of population pressure, ecological chnage & population movement , first in Near east region

Why ? Some theories about development of agriculture

Childe’s Oasis Model –

in New Light on the Most Ancient East (1952) by V. Gordon Childe –
series of hypothesis about force of climate crisis leading to domestication of animal & plants, since killing them would have left the oasis with no source of food. –
During close of pleistocene drying of Mediterranean climate -> grassland turned into desert, dotted with oases. -> become concentrated (people, animal & plant)
Unsupported – archeological data don’t support & logically unsound by Braidwood (1967) why didn’t happened during intergalactic phases ?

Braidwood’s Nuclear Zone Theory –

culturally receptive to domestication (as in-depth knowledge of env. ) & presence of nuclear zone ( area rich in domesticitionalble animals & plant)
happed only in neolithic b/c earlier people were not culturally ready (as it grown gradually)

Population Models –

growth of population beyond the land’s ability to support the human biomass. ( in case on impossibility of emigration – William sanders & Barbara Prince) ex Tehuacan Valley of Mexico, geographical circumscription
For some climate change reduced food supply (Lewis Binford)
Population growth, forced change in tech & subsistence – Mark Cohen – Old world & North & S America

This led to emergence of Village communities based on sedentary life. Beginning of settlement at Mehrgharh (about 8000 years ago.)

Koldihwa– First evidence of rice in world.
Maherghar (Pakistan) : First to take up agriculture in Indian subcontinent
- Mehrgarh people invented cotton , potter wheels first time in world,

The discovery of tools and implements of Neolithic age was made by Le Mesurier in Uttar Pradesh in 1860.

The term ‘Neolithic’ was coined Sir John Lubbock in his book “Prehistoric Teme” which was first published in 1865
V. Gardon Childe was the first who defined the Neolithic-Chalcolithis Culture as a self-suffient food economy.

climate – As Post Glacial Period so warm & dry -> expense of land open to vegetation but covered with forests-> to clean polished tools (wouldn’t remain struck)

Time Period – Neolithic age Began 7000 BC but Neolithic settlement in Indian subcontinent is not older than 4000Bc

Human Species – Homo spaiens sapiens

Tool Technology – Grinding & polishing of stone tools ; large brain enabled

Tool Material – (Same as Mesolithic)

stone & organic material & later included bone, wood & antlers

Tool Type – Polished axe, adze, chisel, saddle quern of Mild Stone, Ring stone, grinder, stone saw, muller

Socio-Cultural & Major Developments(Seq) revolution in sociocultural life following manner

Emergence of ground & polished tools
cleaning for Forest & jungle by involvement of labor
Cultivation & domestication of Animals (Energy Revolution- if used in agri as labor) – Milk, cheese, butter, egg )
surplus of grains -> brought Pottery culture
increase of population size & density – Demographic effect of agriculture as earlier carrying capacity of most envs kept human groups small. ) & also reduced death rate among infants & elderly (soft food -possible diet for toothless . Avg. Life expectancy was 31 -34 male & 28 to 31 for female.
Permanent (community Interdependence) or semi permanent (coexistence) settlement – sedantism
Division of labour & specialization (ability of store surpluses)
Social inequalities & hierarchies
- In Hunter gatherers food sharing was based on kinship. But in agricultural groups (leader may due to age or position) -> more productive -> more complex distribution system -> more power to leader -> prestige & power -> institutionalisation of post
- Change in division of labor – specialisation
- Influence the role of the sexes in society ; later on need of more intensive agriculture due to population pressure – role of women decreased. & with it status have fallen as well. As their activity define their status ex among Iroquois Indians of American North east before European invasion – status was high
Religion <- Conflict-> Political Organisation (to safe guard & dispute resolution ) – conflict over property, territory & resources
Inequality(not seems to emerged tilll neolithic) & conflict resolution paved way fro rise of religion
- Crime prevention, resolve dispute, pass laws & provide security
Neolithic marked first settle life & leisure time to develope social relations

Wars & Trade – among different groups became more common
- There was conflict in pre-farming days but the groups were too spread out for the violence to became systematised war fare.
- Even the incentives to launch raids were greater than ever before because of enhanced productivity.
- Also peaceful ways of obtaining the them; trade more elaborate & first time institutionalised markets were setup by middlemen
- This both helped bring about radical change in distribution of physical traits to the world’s population. More contact -> intermingling of cultures -> gene flow & break down group differences
Invention & New Technologies – rate of innovation rosed dramatically – increased the ability to change the env. To support -> as ability increased,so dit population, thus redoubling the pressure to invent & to discover
- Population pressure b/c of high production -> incentive to find more efficient ways to use resources
- News of breakthrough spread more quickly (due to war & trade )
- Wheels & sails, both were present by at least 5,300 BP in Mesopotamia
- Animal harvesting for plough & transportation -> energy revolution
- Irrigation tech – pot irrigation , canal irrigation
- Water resistance pottery, smelting art

Regional peculiarities in Neolithhc cultures b/c of local env. conditions & diversity of influences.
ssettled community life needed rules to regulate the behaviour of its member.
dog (first animal to be domesticated) helped in hunting & companion & protector of family & cattle
Oxe was used as beast of burden, cttle used were raised in herds fro thier milk
fibers of flakes could be spurn into thread & would be spun in Lenin cloths by use of bone needles
world’s first boat by using dug outs made up of logs

Limitation

Since they had to depend entirely up on tools and weapons made of stone, they could not found settlement far away from the hilly area.

Technology Revolution

perhaps in later stage of neolithic the invention of wheel which brough about a techn. revolution

Mose kn we have is based on

Region	Sites	Characteristics
North India	Burzahan, Near Srinagar , On Jhelum (2400-1400 BC) – Gofkral	Discovered by DeTErran & Paterson (1935) & excavated by TN Khazachi of ASITools deposits divided into 4 periods – first 2 Neolithic, 3rd Megalithic & 4th early historic polished chisels & mace beads. Polished axes, harvesters(rectangular knife)weapons made up of bones (Bone tools industry) (aCc ro Agarwal(ibid) – most developed in Indain Neolithc culture Absence of microliths16 Pit dwelling (irregular shaped)Potholes fishing, hunting & faint clue of cultivation walls were plastered with mud potsherds representing hand made coarsely finished pottery (made by coiling tech.- Acc to Pant By RAdiography (1972) ) – whell not knownBurials of both man & animalsSkeleton covered with red ochre (ritualistic tradition)Painting (Hunting scene) -> steel qray to brown colour
North India	Mehargarh (5100BC) – Near Golan Pass in BaluchistanOldest neolithihc is subcontinent	Excaveted during Franch Archaeological exploration in 1977 by Jaringe & Lechevaller Seminormadic settlementFunerary platformbitumen stickingcopper bead & Turquoise bead(early phase)pendant of lead, beads of lapis-lazuli, red slipped pottery, a grooved elephant tusbasket marked pottery with animal motifs on it. in later period -> signifies cultural evolution towards urban settlement It is thus spectacular discovery of a community with rudimentary evidence of all attributes & achievement which are considered as prime movers to urban civilisation
East India	Chirand (Bihar) – In Saran District of Bihar (2000 BC) At confluence of Ganga & Ghagra	Abundance of bone & antler tool -But No harponsbone used to make ameults such as ear rings, bangles, combs etc Weapons – bows & arrows made up of stone & bone points & Terracota – sting balls Charred qrains of paddy husk & wheat, Masoor & moong evidence of sanke cult -> Terracota figur of sanke – serpent figurines pottery welll made on turn table initally pit later only overground huts
North East India	DeoJali Hading (Assam)Norht cachar hills AOnly excavated site in Eastern I. rest all from surface Acc to Sankalia 4000-2000 BC	By TC Sharma Mud wallled houses , but no info about habitation str. hand made Pottery with cord or basket impression Polished stone tools (stone aaxes)ground & polished celts are mostly shouldered at the butt end & had ground, sharp border Absence of microliths, bone tools & arificially contstructed habitation in addition to distinctive variety of celts led many schors to believe that Daolaki Hading may represent breakaway faction from YunnanAssam Quite different from rest of India similar to Chinese
	Lamini & Lapachi -2 sites in Manipur	OAC
South India c14 dating – 2500-1000 BC cha – Polished Axe & adze also imp & variety of chisels Late dev. of AGri Climate (less rainfall )toolkit (lackedfor agri)Economic stagnation o(symbiotic relationship with higer culture impacted	Sanganakally (KN) Tekkalikota	By Subha RaoPolished axeAdge is very prominentbolers & pointedtolls hammer stone, sling stonebone tools cermic pottery -> dul qrayl ware Hand made
	Maski (KN)	Wheel made pottery Terracota figurine of humped bull seems well acquinted with cattle rearing & agri. concave shaped saddle querns & pounders – grains coarsely crushed befor eating
	Brahmagiri-PIklihal (KN) –	By Wheeler Huts /house

conclusion

So, The story of plant & animal domestication (Artificial Selection) , developed of new tech & inventions is the subject of so-called Neolithic Revolution & it contributed to an enormous increase in the efficiency with which human could change the env. to support themselves. As the ability increased, so did population, thus redoubling the pressure to invent & to discover. Thus The pace of social progress & technology development gathered momentum with the beinning of Neolithic. From then onward man has never looked back. The invention of script & several other achievements that followed paved the way for the development of civilisation.

Prehistoric Arts

“We can, indeed, imagine that long before man started to paint with Colors or engrave with specially made engraving tools, he must often have made rough drawing in sand, in the earth naturally, however such examples of early art would hardly ever survive” – Leakey , 1960

Earliest Evidence – Lower paleolithic but full fledged evidence from upper Palaeolithic

Cave Art

Upper Palaeolithic Art (Cave Art, Home Art)

Rock & cave paintings from France, Spain & Italy
In India, Adamgarh, Bhimbetka hills contains cave paintings (First discovered by Carlyle , other – Chekbum, Ardebil, Mitra, Gosh)
Palaeolithic mrunal paintings can be divided into
1. On Dark caves & passages
2. On Open Rock shelters
3. on flat slabs of rocks & tops of boulders
The commonest explanation of the art hidden in dark caves & inaccessible places is presence of Magicio religious beliefs
Painting depicts hunting scenes, process of hunting (arrow strickers, bleeding animals)
Not only bored cave dweller’s way of distracting themselves, but meaningful products of a patterned intelligence
- Realistic representation of game animals -> ritual design to encourage success of hunt, cure sickness, mark birth or death, or celebrate the onset of spring
- Exquisite “Venus”- Statues of Women (apparently pregnant ) might have been fertility symbol
- Various abstract signs – such rectangle, rows of dots, barbed lines, & ovals – might have been symbolised male females & their relations
- Consistency in location of various animal in the cave paintings suggested – intentional & orderly rather than random.

if these deciphered could provide a wealth of clues to how these early people lived, thought & perhaps spoke

Mesolithic Art

at Adamgarh, Mahadeo, Bhimbetka hills
Paintings – Bison, Elephant, tiger, rhino, Boar
smaller than Palaeolithic but with diverse themes
drawn on walls & ceilings
with white pigments, with black or deep purple obtained from magnesium oxides & copper compounds to produce a bright shade of green
hematite & other oxides of iron were used to produce colour in red, yellow, orange & brown
female paintings were drawn either nude or in cloths
engraved figures of animals

Mahipal’s Study 1984 of Bhimbetka Paintings &

Dry colour & crayon paintings
wet transparent colour paintings
wet opaque or oil tempera paintings
spray colour paintings

Findings

crayon paintings is rare in India
Minerals & ochre colour with either vegetable juice or animal fat
found hematite pieces throughout Mesolithic-Bhimbhetka

Attempt to identify bird species – Perching birds are absent (as dependent on grain) -not available in hunting gatherings societies.

Neolithic Art

Granite rock of North KN & AP – Suitable platform
imp sites – kapgullu, Pikhlihal, Tekkalkota
content – Animals,
- Kapgulla – unique scene showing exited males with outsized organs abducting females

Home Art

include any art executed on moveable objects

prehistoric man beautified his body with necklaces, pins & bracelets
material – ivory bone, stone & shell, engraved designs on animal teeth & soft stones sculptured in exotic shapes: Mesolithic & Neolithic sites

Sum Up by Bhattacharya (1984)

palaeolithic art gives earliest indication of mind of prehistoric man
circumstantial evidences of debris throw light on prehistoric society but not on mind of prehistoric man, his agonies & source of ecstasies & his art is sole window to his mind.

Chalcolithic period Art

• Copper age art.

• reveal the association, contact and mutual exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with settled agricultural communities of the Malwa Plateau.

• Pottery and metal tools can be seen in paintings.

• Similarities with rock paintings: Common motifs (designs/patterns like cross hatched squares, lattices etc)

• Difference with rock paintings: Vividness and vitality of older periods disappear from these paintings.

Pre-Harappan Culture (2700-2400 BC)

Area quite vast streching upto Indo-Iranian boarderLand –

These people these people stood at the threshold of urbanisation

Common features- following are some of the striking feature of the pre-Harappan culture

Skill of fortification
elaborate housing
Pottery
cattle breeding and
commerce

Some Imp Sites – Several Preharappan sites have been found in

Balochistan- Kili Gul Mohammed, Damb Saddat, Perisno, Gundai & Kula Mahali
Sind – Amri, Kot Diji, Mohenjodaro and Gumla
Punjab – Harappa
N. Rajasthan – kalibangan
Gujarat – Lothal
Bhanawali – Haryana

Indus Valley Civilization (2500-1750 BC)

This culture “like any great revolution may best be visualised as sudden offspring of opportunity & genuine.” Wheeler(1953) – Env. opportunity & creative genius are responsible for greatness

was a Bronze Age C. Mainly in N-W region of South Asia with area around 1.3 million sq. Km extending from what today is N-E Afghanistan to Pakistan(till boarder of Iran) & Northwest India. First kn in Indian subcontinent existed from 2500 to 1750 BC.

Characteristised by bronze, town planing, presence of Granary, great bath, well fired pottery, seals, beads, weights , stone blades and even baked bricks
Older than the chalcolithic culture but far more developed.

Most advanced out of the four contemporary civilizations

Features of Civilization – Urban Life ,Script, Sophisticated Tech., Materialistic Dev., Increasing Use of Metals(Alloys)
Sumerian Civilization (Mesopotamia) – Land b/w two rivers – Tigeris, Eupratese ,
Egyptian Civilization (Nile Valley),
Chinese Civilization (Hwang Ho Valley)

Names

IVC named after Indus valley (where first remains found). First time this name used by John Marshall. (Director General of ASI at the time of Indus valley excavation)
Also called Saraswati Civilization B/c it is present in Sapta Sindhu Region which Includes rivers , Indus, Jhelum,chenab,Ravi, Sutlej, vayas, sarasvati (Ghaggar & Hakra river identified by mythological river sarasvati)
Harappa Civilization B/c First site to excavated in 1921.
Bronze Age Civilization
Proto-Historic civilization – This civilization has script, but it is not studies by any archeologist, so It is called protohistoric.

Time Period

developed during post glacial period b/w 2500 to 1800
However, Mature phase existed between 2200 Bc & 2000 BC.
- Lothal was ancient part of Indus Civilization
- The IVC was primarily Urban civilization
Around 1750 two major cities Harappa & Mohenjodaro, disappeared.
Several Preharappan sites have been found in Baluchistan & Kalibhangan in Raj & Bhanawali Haryana

Climate

Characteristised by warm & dry climate regime, vast area covered by forest & bushes

People used different bronze & lithic tools and cleared forest cultivated different types of crops.

Tool Technology – creative genius combined with env. opportunity helped to develop such tools tech & type -> helped IVC in developing an elaborate system of town planing.

know art of Metallurgy (involve mining of ores, smelts of ore & preparation of different type of tools from it kn as Craftsmanship
Blade & flake tech

Tool Type

metallic tools – weapons, weight, measures etc
lithic tools – stone axe, chert blades, saw, spears, knives so on
Various type Pottery having designs of flora & fauna

Tool Material

civilisation based on metal bronze –
- cu obtained from Khatri mines RJ
- Tin from Afghanistan & other countries
Lithic & non lithic material

Regional variation – extende from Jammu in north to Narmada in south & Makran coast of Baluchistan in west to Meerut in north.

Westernmost – Sutkagendor (Pak-Iran boarder) ,Dashk River
Easternmost – Alamgirpur (UP), Hindon River
Northernmost – Manda (J&K) ,Chenab River
Southernmost – Daimabad (Maharashtra), Pravara River

Harappa & Mohenjodaro standout like twin capitals in single empire among a no. of sites” – Childe (1952)

Name	Year and Excavator	District & State	Archeological Findings
Harappa	1921-Daya Ram Sahni1921(6-M.S. Vatsa1946-Wheeler	Sahiwal – Montgomery (Punjab) in PakistanOn bank of Ravi riverPunjabi story	2 rows of 6 Granaries with big platformStone symbol of lingam and yoni.Mother goddess sculptureWheat & barley in wooden mortar.Dice,copper scale and mirror.Wooden Coffin (burials) A grave with 12 bronze mirrors, many jems and jewellerySculpture of dog chasing a deer in bronze metalA red sand stone male torso.Workman’s quarter Bullock cart (ekka) Symmetry
Mohenjo Daro (“Mound of Dead ” in Sindhi.)	1922- R.D. Bannerji1925-Mackay1930-Wheeler	Larkana (Sindh ) Pakistanon river bank of IndusMohanjodaro Movie – dance, CAG, hall , bath, priest – Pashupati, citadel	College Assembly hallGreat granariesGreat Bath (89×23×8)FeetPiece of woven cloth A bronze dancing girl(World’s oldest bronze Sculpture)Steatite bust of a priestThe CitadelPashupati SealHorse, Buffalo, male ship
Chanhudaro(Lancashireof India)Only indus city with out Citadel or Acropolis	1925-Mackay1931-M.G.Mazumdar	Nawabshah(Sindh)on Indus River130 km south of Mohenjodaro	LipsticksEvidence of CatBead making factoryInk pot Foot print of dog chasing a cat also found Exclusively devoted to craft production.
Lothal (Manchester of Indus Valley Civilisation )	1954-S.R. Rao	Ahmedabad(Gujrat)in bank of Bhogava river at head of gulf of cambay	First man made port Dockyard(World’s oldest )Rice Husk ( 1st evidence of rice) Fire Alter – suggest fire worship or worship of Agni, the god of fire.Twin burial – suggests practicing of sati Terracotta horseChess plain
Kalibanga(Pre Harappa & Harappa)	1951-Amalanand Ghosh1961-B.V. Lal-B.K. ThaparIt saw two cultural cultural phase i.epre & harappan	Hanumangarh (N. Rajasthan)Ghaggar	Both Balathal and kalibangan7 Fire alter (around some bones of cattles)Toy cartsBone of camelDecorated bricksFurrowed land suggesting practicing of agri by ploughing
Banawali	1937-R.S BistIt saw two cultural cultural phase i.e pre & harappan similar to Kalibangan.	Fatehabad / Hisar (Haryana)Ghaggar on dried up saraswati	Toy ploughBarley grainsLapis lazuli ( bead making shop) Fire AltarsOnly city with radial streets and oval shaped settlements.Bone of horses
Dholavira(Latest city to discovered)	1967-68-J.P Joshi (DG of ASI) 6th largest site of IVC 1st site in India to be included in UNESCO	Khadir island in Great Raan of Kutchh (GRK) (Gujrat)Luni	A reservoirUnique water harnessing systemStadium was found Dams and embankmentsInscription comprising 10 large sized signs like an advertisement board
Rakhigarhi	(Largest site of IVC)Provincial Capital	Hissar(Haryana	Terracotta bricks2020 : sign of beef eating
Ropar	First Harappan site of Independent India	PunjabSutlej	Dog buried with human in oval pit burials,Copper axe
Surkotada		Gujrat	First actual remains of horse bones
Alamgirpur		Meerut ,UPYamuna	Broken blade made of copperCeramic items Impresion of cloths on a trough
Mehrgarh	Precursor to Indus valley civilisation		PotteryCopper tools
Kot Diji		Pakistan	TarStatues of BullMother goddess sculpture
Suktagndor	Western Most site	Pakistan	Bangles of Clay
Balu		Haryana	plant remains have been foundEarliest evidence of Garlic
Daimabad	Southernmost site o	Maharashtra	Bronze Chariot
Kerala no dhoro		Gujrat	Salt producing site during IVC
Kot Bala		Pakistan	Earliest evidence of furnance
Mand	Northern most site of	Jammu & kashmir

Other prominent sites of IVC include Mehrgar (Pakistan), Desalpur (Gujarat), Pabumath (Gujarat), Rangpur (Gujarat), Shikarpur (Gujarat), Sanauli (UP), Kunal (Haryana),Karanpura (Rajasthan), Ganeriwala (Punjab), etc.

Cities

Capital Cities- Harappa & Mohenjo Daro
Port Cities- Lothal, Suktagendon, Allah Dino, Balakot(Shells we’re found), Nageshwar (Shells we’re found),Kuntasi

Site based Superlatives : Total Sites : 1400 (India : 900 , Pak-500 (Sindh & Cholistan {the desert area of Pak boardering Thar})

Largest site of IVC – Mohenjodaro (Pakistan) , means “Mound of Dead ” in Sindhi,
- Lothal means ” Mound of Dead ” in Gujarati.
2nd Largest site of IVC – Harappa (Pakistan)
Largest site of IVC in India – Rakhigarhi (Haryana)
Only site where remains of horses where found – Kutch district of Gujarat

Social & Culture

Town Planning– creative genius combined with env. opportunity helped to develop such tools tech(metallurgy, smelting & craftsmanship) & type(weapon, weight & measure) -> helped IVC in developing an elaborate system of town planing. It was distinguished by its town planning. General all were fortified. It included
- The arrangement of houses followed –Systematic town planning on the lines of Grid system – cities were divided in blocks , nowhere building were allowed to encroach into public highways as in Sumer
  - Banavali was only city which was not made on the Grid System.
  - Chandigarh is the only city built on Grid pattern in India.
- It is protected by walls. i.e Fortified
- Concern of privacy – No window in the walls along the ground level
- Every city is divided into 2 parts – included two type of buildings both built on raised platform
  - Chanhudaro – Only city which doesn’t had citadel
  - Dholavira – The city was divided into 3 parts
  - Public buildings & Public bath
  - citadels & other public buildings
    - Western part was used for constructing buildings of large dimensions
      - Granaries (divided into 2 blocks with attached platform for loading & unloading eg. Harappa & Mohanjodaro-Daro
        
        Intelligently designed with Strategic air ducts and raised platforms
        
        Which helped in storage of grains and protecting them from pest
      - Administrative buildings , citadels
      - Pillared halls
      - Courtyard
        
        an unroofed area that is completely or partially enclosed by walls or buildings, typically one forming part of a castle or large house
        
        Rooms were centred around it.
    - Some of citadel building have been the residence of rulers and aristocrats. eg. Mohenjo-Daro
    - Dockyards in case of Lothal
  - lower-City (but larger) – Dwelling Houses (workman quarter)
    - Contained at least two rooms along with kitchen, bathroom, courtyard & possibly a upper story eg . Harappa
    - Private wells and Properly ventilated bathrooms.
- Do not have large monumental structure such as temples or rulers palaces.
- Lamp post at regular intervals indicated the existence of street light
- Important feature is prevalence of Public baths supplied with fresh water taken from a nearby well. ,Indicate the importance of ritualistic cleansing in their culture.
  - These baths also have an array of galleries and rooms surrounding it.
  - A hot air bath was also available within the great bath eg. Mohenjodaro
  - Great bath excavated in Mohenjo daro
- Generally in building walls, pavements, bathrooms, drainage etc .Use of Brunt mud Bricks in construction. – show advanced level of kn of Mansonry
  - Many layer of well backed bricks were laid out and then jointed together using gypsum mortar.
  - In contemporary buildings of Egypt dried bricks were mainly used. Baked bricks in Mesopotamia, but in smaller extent.
  - Walls made of burnt bricks raised for protection show that floods took place annually.
  - Sun dried bricks were also used only for foundation & packing of terraces.
  - Brick kilns have been found from Mohenjodaro
- Underground Drainage system with manholes & constructed in grid pattern – unique feature
  - Cesspits were placed at regular intervals.
  - Big water reservoir in Dholavira
  - Every city have drainage system except Banavali.
  - Immaculate maintenance of drainage both in streets & houses shows the elaborate kn of people about town planning. Eg Harrapa & Dholavira
- Uniformity in town plan May be brought about by centralisation of production along with its efficient administration

Social Structure of IVC – usualy tried to found by studying burials, looking for luxurious items
- Population of IVC- Mongoloids, Proto Australoid (Australia), Mediterranean ( not conform)
- Emergence of cities & consequent urban life resulted in specialisation of occupation; yet most people were farmers lying beyond the walls of cities
- Different occupations resulted into emergence of different class of people ; social stratification can be explained by different occupations
- Class divided based on Wealth – In class mobility is allowed
- Society was Matriarchal like Egyptians acc. to John Marshall ; but there are not clear idea about it.
- The remains of Mohenjodaro demonstrates the existence of 4 main classes
  - The learned class of the intellectual elites, warriors , traders and artisans
  - manual labourers constitute an altogether different class
- Fashion Conscious- as can be inferred from the different styles of hair and beard.
  - Spindle Whorls were used for spinning, was made up of rare material like Faience ( a material made up from the ground sand or silica mixed with colour and gum & then fired.)

Political System – It is unrecognisable from the artifacts and evidences we get in excavation but
- According to D.D. Kaushambi – The priest class people are rulers i.e Theocracy
- But R.S Sharma rejected this hypothesis, as there were no religious symbols (i.e temple etc.) Acc. to him Merchants were ruler.

Religion ( to reconstruct religious life from few surviving remains- risky endeavour
- Didn’t worship Gods in temples, – No temple has been found in excavation unlike Egypt & Mesopotamia
- no other religious str. Except great bath -Indicate the importance of ritualistic cleansing in their culture.
- Ideal were found there
  - Male Deity (God )- Pashupati Mahadeva (i.e the lord of animals) : Proto- Shiva (In opinion of John Marshall )- Represented in seals which was found in Mohenjodaro
    - With 3 heads and 2 horns.
    - as sitting in Yogic Posture
    - Surrounded by four animal : Elephant, Buffalo, Tiger, Rhino
    - Two deer appear at his feet
    - There was the prevalence of Phalluc (Lingam) worship.
      - Rig veda speaks of the non-Aryan people, who were the phallus worshippers.
  - Female Deity (Goddess)- Mother Goddess (also known as Matru Shakti or Shakti) ; terracotta figurines ; goddess of fertility .
- Shiva- Shakti worship : Oldest form of worship in India, appear to have been part of religious belief of Harappa people (i.e Humped Bull)
- Bull, snake, tree were worshipped i.e zoolatry and tree worship(esp. peepal)
  - seal depicting deity in midst branches of pipal
- Clear evidence of rituals along the animal slaughtering
- Dead bodies were buried as well as cremated

Economic Activity – all kind such as agri(predominant), manufacturing & services.
- Abundance of fertilite soil -> progress of agri -> Main Crops & dietary
  - Wheat, barley, lentil, chickpeas, Rice, Dates,Mustard,Sesamum
  - Cotton (First to produce cotton in world) thus aka sindon by greeks, also knew wool, spinning whorls used for spinning
  - Millets are found from sites of Gujarat
  - Found of Rice are relatively rare ; Lothal people used Rice
  - Ear wide range of plant & animal products including fish & beef.
- Agricultural Technology – Prevalence of agriculture indicated by finds of grain
  - Bull was known ; terracotta sculpture & found on seal
  - Plough was found at sites in Cholistan & Banawali Haryana
  - Ploughed field in kalibhangan Rajasthan
    - Field had two set sets of furrow at right angle-Suggesting two crops grown together
    - Don’t know whether drawn by man or oxen
    - In many place as no evidence so may be b/c they used wooden plough
  - As located on semi arid lands, irrigation required
    - Traces of Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dams for storing water in Shortughai in Afghanistan & Baluchistan
    - But not in Punjab or sind
    - Water resrviors at Dholavira Gujarat
- Domestication of Animals
  - Reared Cattle, sheep, goat, Buffalo & pig
  - Bones of wild animals such as boar, deer, gharial also found
  - Bone of fish & fowl also found.
  - humped bulls were favoured
  - Signs of the feet of both dogs & cats have been noticed
  - Asses & camels
  - Horses were not in regular use although, have been reported in Surkotada, around 2000 BC.
  - People in Gujrat Domesticated elephants, which was not the case with people of Mesopotamian. Animals
  - Sheep, Goat, Bull, Buffalo, Dog, Tiger, cat, Pig, Deer, Tortoise, Elephant, Camel, Rhinoceros.we’re kn But Lion was not known
- Craftsmanship –weaver were weaving clothes of wool & cotton
- Potters wheel was in full use & made their own characteristics pottery
- Metallurgy – also emerged
  - Iron was not known to them
  - Use of Gold, copper & Bronze was there.
  - Gold smith made jewellery of silver, gold (first 2 may be from AFG) precious stone ( from south India)

remarkable uniformity & standardisation in Wights and Measures of IVC
- Weight seem to have 1:6 fragments
- 16 is base for weight & measures
- Measuring rode show – the unit of length was 13.2 inches ; perhaps lowest fraction was 0.367 inches
- Allchin & Allchin(1968) rightly commented – uniformity appear all more imposing when one considers the cultural extended more than a million sq km.

Trade and Barter – There was extensive regional and foreign trade (Lothal : as portal city)( controversial) Rao (1973 supported)
- Foreign trade with Mesopotamia or Sumer ( Modern Iraq), Bahrain etc flourished.
  - Sura and Ur are mesopotamian places where Harappan seals (the small piece of steatite : 1cm) were found.
  - Mesopotamian text mentioned contact with regions named Dilmun (Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha( possibly Harrappan Region)
- Exports- Agri Product, Cotton goods, Terracotta, Figurines, Pottery, Ivory Products, Copper etc
- No evidence of coins, barter system(Exchanging the Good) is assumed to have been the normal method of exchange of goods.
- Mesopotamian seals were always cylindrical shape , 3 of which are found in Mohenjo Daro.
- Indian cotton was found in UMMA. In 2300 BC Sindon means cotton In Greek derived from Sindh.
- Mesopotamian script, which is written in cuneiform, refers to trade relation with Meluha which is name given to Indus region.
- Copper (from Raj.& Oman), Tin ( from Afghanistan & Iran) Gold ( from present-day Karnataka) precious Stones (from present-day, Gujarat, Iran & Afghanistan )
- In Raj from Khetri Area ; it’s called as Ganeshwar- Jodhpura Culture due to it’s distinctive none Harappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects.

Skript and Language
- Pictographic Script (400 to 500 Symbols) yet to be deciphered ; schoolers generally agree that were written right to left
- Boustrophedon Language ( if in first line left to right then in second right to left then again left to right)
- Used scripts on seal, pots etc
- Don’t write long inscriptions, mostly on seal

Sculptures of Harappan Civilisation (Technology & Crafts)
- Culture belongs to the Bronze age.
- Most commonly found were seals , bronze figures and Potteries
- Potters wheel was in full use & made their own characteristics pottery
- also weapons such as axes, saws, knives & spears.
- Seals (the small piece of steatite () : 1cm)
  - Seal consists of the pictographs, animals etc & Shape rectangle or square, 4000 seals found

Reasons of Decline of IVC

there are several theories such as foreign invasion m, climate change, hydrological change, tectonic Phenomenon and physio chemical explosions to describe the decline of Harappan civilisation.

Some ascribe its disappearance to the decreasing fertility on account of increasing salinity of soil caused by the extension of the neighbouring desert
Foreign Invasion Theory – associates were Pegot, Gorden & Wheeler. Drew conclusions from following facts
- Periodical reinforcement of the fortified walls at the urban sites
- Rgvedic mention of the similar invasion & conquering by the Indo-European or Aryans
- Presence of drones and other kind of traditional weapons associated with the Indo Europeans
- Discovery of the skeleton at the Mohenjo Daro which sign of violence Massacre.

However it is difficult to support the theory b/c Indus civilisation existed between 2500 to 1800 BC whereas earliest Indo-European invasion took place around 1500 BC so far known from Rigveda.

It can be said that the nomads and invaders must have been coming from Central Asia politically and defence against them was done by the walls .

So far archaeological evidences of clear contact between the Aryan and the Harappan’s have been leaking more Geomorphological and archaeological evidence is required to reach the definite conclusions

Thus story does not explain the decline of civilisation also there are no archaeological evidences in favour of the theory

Climate Change Theory – By Marshal & Ostein
- The opined that climate during this period was wetter than today and it was slowly causing aridity which is the failure of economy and hence ofcource civilisation
- However there are no conclusive evidence so far in favour of this theory
Tectonic Phenomenon(Depression) – Railes, Dales & others after studying water deposited layer in Mohenjodaro, Amri & Chanhu-daro.
- Indus was flooded suddenly b/c of tectonic phenomenon
Physicians-chemical Explosion – by Soviet Scholar Dimitryev
- He explained that there was a physio chemical exposures in which resulted in the sudden disappearance of Mohenjo Daro .
- Evidences are drawn from the Mahabharat which mentioned similar explosions in the region of the Mohenjo Daro and found out charred bodies and melting stone in some site of the Mohenjodaro
Hydrological changes
1. Lambrick suggested that East ward shift of discussed periodic inundation in and around Mohenjo Daro city leading to loss of agriculture economy
2. VN Mishra studied the Palio channel of the river Ghaghra (Rj) in course of time it shifted to words East ultimately joining the Ganga system .
  - this resulted in the dryness in the Sutlej and hence the Indus
  - those it brought a crash in economic surplus
  - it was not all the sudden rather gradual
  - Today, Indus river is 40 km away from the Mohenjo daro but in ancient period, this city was bulit on the banks of Indus.
Natural disaster like earthquake or Tsunami
Wild animals invasion.
Ecological Degradation
- Indiscriminate use of natural resources

Current Updates

Based on the molecular chemical analysis (c16 & c18) in shards of pottery found at the archaeological site of Kotada Bhadli (Gujarat) → dairy production in IVC at Industrial level → first time about || economy – agro pastoral or rural. → life of common maters
2020 Mark 100th year of discovery of IVC

Contribution of Harappa culture to Indian Civilisation

following are the contribution of Harappan culture to Indian Civilisation

The cult of Pashupati (shiva) and of the mother goddess and the phallic worship seems to have come down to Indian civilisation from Harappa tradition
The cults of Sacret Places, rivers or trees and the sacred animals show a distinct continuity in the subsequent historic civilisation of India
The evidence of the fire worship and sacrifice in Kali baingan and Lothal is significant these were significant element of vedic religion
Many aspects of the domestic life like house planes, the disposition of water supply and attention to bathing survived in the settlement of the subsequent period
Traditional wheat and currency system based on the ratio of 16 as the unit was already present in Harappa civilisation
Making of Potters wheel in India -this technique was present Harappa period
Bullock carts and the board is used in modern India were already present in the Harappan cities

as we can see that the many elements of the Harappan civilisation survived in the subsequent historical tradition

Chalcolithic Age (6k BC)

Neolithic Age followed by Chalcolithic(copper-stone)Age in which stone continued to be used along with copper. Also kn as Eneolithic

Most of these cultures belong to a period after Harrapa culture but were less advanced than Harrapa culture.(emerged earlier than chalcolithic)
Include – non-urban & no Harrapa cultures; urban tradition of earlier Harrapa disappeared & marked by rural economy.

World

first emerged in Fertile Crescent & later gave rise to Bronze Age in 4th millennium BC
In Middle East & Caucasus – in late 5th millennium Bc
Acc to Parpola, ceramic similarities b/w Indus, southern Turkmenistan & norther Iran during 4300-3300 Bc – suggest considerable mobility & trade.

Time Period – Chalcolithic Age (inclusive time spread 1750-1000 )is divided into three stage

Pre-Harappan Age 3500 BC-25,00 BC
Harappan Age 2500 BC – 1750 BC
Post Harappan Age – 2000 BC -1000 BC
- Aka sub indus culture, late harappan
- Cultural homo disappear>>>>stylistic diversity
- Primarily chalcolithic
- Rural settlement
- decline in trade, commerce, town planning
- swat valley- northernmost outpost of late harappan culture
- NOTE- ragi and finger millet not known so far in any harappan site

Tool Technology

New Tech of smelting & crafting Metal ores imp deve in Human Civili ;

Tool Types

microlithic tools( contd to be essential items) + other stone tools and little use of copper

Tool Material

Copper ( First metal to be used) + Stone continued to be used

Sociocultural Activities

People began to travel long distance to obtain metal ores —> led to network of Chalcolithic cultures in India ,
gen grown in river V but not far away from hills ( as stone also needed)
Remarkable trend of Ruralisation ; Village Economy , no urban civilization. – Founded first full fledged villages in India
Excellent progress in Pottery; First to use painted pottery – Black & Red pottery – wheel turned pottery
Improvements in habitats like wattle & daub patterns, worker’s quarter in Inamgaon, use of bamboo framework
Cultivated far more cereals than known in Neolithic -Produce wheat & rice
- In addition staple crops they also cultivated Bajra.
- Pulses like Lentil (Masur), black gram. green gram and grass pea.- found in digging at Navdatoli– also produced ber and Linseed.
- cotton on the black cotton soil in deccan
- Ragi, bajra and several millets were cultivated in the lower decan.
- In eastern India fish and Rice i.e Bihar and West Bengal
High IMR (large no. of child burials)despite good producing economy – may be due to lack of nutrition, -nc of medical kn or outbreak of epidemic. – General Weakness of Chalcolithic Culture – Sharma 1977
Domesticated animals –Not clear whether they have been acquainted with horse.
Food supplemented by non vegetarian food – People certainly ate beef but pork not at considerable amount
Beginning of Social Inequality – different of material within the grave
- In chandogi & Nevada western MH -some children buried with cu bead necklaces & other only with pots
Expert coppersmith and good workers in stone
They know art of spinning and weaving and acquainted with cloth manufacturing .
- Spindle whorls have been discovered in Malwa.
- Cotton, flax and silk threads have been found in Maharashtra.
Burial process
- No separate cemeteries
- Under the floor of their houses
regional cults
- Terracotta figures of women : venerated to mother goddess.
- Used unbaked nude clay figurines for worships.
- Bull terracottas : bull serves as religious cult.

Except for the alluvial plain & the thickly forested areas, traces of Chalcolithic all over India. May be divided in 6 regional groups (limited copper & abundance of lithic blades )

Ahar Banas Culture – Ahar, Bagor & Gilund of Banas culture
Chalcolithic culture of MP – Kayatha, Maheshwar, Navadatoli, Nagda, Avara, Manoti & Evan
North Deccan Chalcolithic culture – Prakash, Bahal, Chandola, Jorwe, Nevada, Inamgon & Nasik
Neolithic Chalcolithic culture of Deccan – Piklihal, Brahamagiri & Maski
Chalcolithic culture Of Gangetic Doab – Bahadurabad, Ambarkheri, Hastinapur & Atranjikhera
Eastern Chalcolithic culture – Chirand & Pandin Rajan Dhibi

Saurashtra – Lothal, Rangpur, Somnath & Rajdi

Chain of linkage Banas Culture is influenced by Harrapa , by Malwa & it by Jorwe

Culture – difference of characteristics ceramics	Sites & Discoverer	Characteristics
Ochre Coloured Pottery Culture (Copper Hoard Culture) Rest All were Extra Harrapan Chalcolithic	Mid Gangetic valley Gangetic Doab On rubbing off the left an ochreous colour: hence namethe ochre coloured pottery area was not far from that of the Harappans.	By BB Lal at Hastinapur ; published in Ancient India – variety of cu tools mostly in catch(UP,MP & Bihar) Type – rings, flat & shouldered celt Anthromorph, swords, double axes, harpoons socket axesCopper hoards – remains of Harrapa refugees on the eastward March copper- hoard people were contemporaries of the Harappans, – Give & take between
Banas Culture (1700-1400BC)	South Eastern Raj , Near Banas river in RajSites –Ahar(closest to Harrapa both geographically & Radio carbon ) ,katha & Gilund	Imp – Black & Red ware, painted white on exterior Geometric motifs Jawar (period II), impressions of long grained rice, animal bones in plentyactive copper smelting activity Most of the sites found in Raj b/c it is large source of copper
Kayatha (Malwa) of MP	Malwa Region by V.S Walkankar in 1964 On the bank of kalisindh, an effluent of Chambal Malwa (1400-1200 BC) By Sankalia Sites -MP : Eran, Nagda, Navadatoli MH : Inamgaon Navadatoli site par excellence	Distinct features- pottery in 3 fabrics. Most prominent is thick, sturdy brown slipped ware painted in violet or deep red. • Quite well off the copper – from 1 pot alone 28 cu bangles • Developed blade industry – lunates, pen knives, parallel sided blades made on chalecedony • Residence – post holes of circular & rectangular huts, no burials reported Main seat of M&k culture, even Banas extended here• Malwa ware – a buff orange slipped pottery painted in black or brown • Use of copper & stone tools• Small settlement of daub & wattle huts Richest for paintings (black & red ware)Charred grains of wheat, barley & rice, linseed, black gram, lintel Ber, Amla & grass pea (consumed)Evidence of eating of beef & pork (Agarwalibid)
Jorwe Culture (1300-700 BC)	Predominates whole of MH except Konkan Jorwe is a village situated on the Pravara river– named due to ceramic speciality Inamgaon in Ouna(MH) : best representative	Cultivates barley, wheat, lentils & rice Artificial irrigation -nc of dishes- food consumed in liquid form , earthen pan-for baking chapattis, large saddle quarn – to make barley & wheat flour HollmarkJorwe ware – Red orange Matt surface painted in geometric designs, fine fabric, well baked Burialschildren & adult were buried with head facing NorthAdult in extended position Children in coarse handmade red grey ware unitsfemale Figurineswith or without headReproductive features exaggerated- Fertility cultSettlement Pattern Social HierarchyIn contrast to humble huts & pits silos of craftsmen, centre of the settlement was occupied by elites Houses were mostly made up of wattle and daub , seem to have been thatched houses. Occasionally their houses were made of mud bricks
Eastern Chalcolithic Culture	Bihar, Bengal, Orissa Imp site – Chirand	Ceramic industries Handmade thick grew wareA wheel thrown red wareBlack & red ware pottery Form – Storage jars, dishes on stand, spouted vases, bowls on stand , lots etc Terracotta Figurines – Serpent common -> may origin of Naga puja (Serpent cult)

Limitations

In spite of food producing economy, high mortality rate.
Supply of copper was limited and also metal copper has its limitations
People don’t know the art of mixing tin with copper
Didn’t know the art of writing nor live in the cities as people of bronze age did.

Iron Age

in India considered as threshold of ancient history. So of historical accounts of ancient history like Vedic, Upanishadic & Brahmanic literary evidences are sometimes used to construct cultural evidences of Iron Age
It shows Development of people in which tool & weapons whose main ingredient was Iron, were used
Last of metal age & followed chalcolithic / copper age . And considered as started around 1000 BC when iron is harnessed to clear forest for establishing permanent colonies.

clearing Forest → sedentary life→ surplus → large cities → superstructure (mighty political power)

Division of Iron Age

1200-1000 BC – Early
1000 BC onwards- Late – No firm ending, used as Iron alloy- Steel

Why Change from Bronze (tin+cu) to Iron

Stronger than bronze
High melting point
Easy availability in plenty
Available tech.
Cheaper

Climate Regime

Origin : In post glacial period around 1500 BC
Characteristised by warm & dry climate

Tool Technology

Direct Modelling
Metallurgy-> Steel ( Better Strength)
Blade technology
Flake Technology

Tool type

Agricultural tools such as ploughshare, sickle, shovels, spades, saw, axe, arrow head, sword, blades
Axe facilitated the clearing of Forests on large scale for getting more land under cultivation
Microliths remain without much change

Socio-Cultural Features

Economic

use of iron-> clearing Forest -> increased production : Agri Dev.
Irrigation, oweing to need of agri
Trade & commerce b/w different region
Pottery making reached peak with rise of PGW (on wheel, coarse with oblique bands) along with BRW
More non lithic tools like bone arrow heads, bangles, beads along with glass appears

Social

Urbanisation once again since decline of IVC ; Middle Gangetic plan – 2nd Urbanisation phase during ice age
Complex class based society, due to complexity of trade , agri
Habitation pattern show trends like mud bricks, wattle & daub huts (0,[]) -Bhagawanpur

Religious

Megalithic culture of south – show role of religion & supernatural entities reached its peak
Terracotta figurines show personification
Emergence of full time religion specialist

Political

scholars like BB Lal equates Iron Age with age of Maharashtra
Large sized kingdom were based on foundation of Iron Age
Warfare increased owing to emergence of complex tech.

Art – Sophisticated art, monumental buildings

Demographically increased population

Regional Variation:

iron enters at different parts of India with diff social context, thus diff. Iron Age features are developed in diff area

Anatolia – earliest & systematic production

Mesopotamia – through Hittite empire

Levant State – Jordon, Israel

Mediterranean

Egypt

Megalithic Culture in India

REM wheeler describes Megalithics as “monuments which are built of rough, large, undressed block of stone of rudimentary character which are burials, fulfilling funerary or commemorative or religious functions.”

Worldwide feature as memorial stone for dead ; Neolithic in Europe but in India function of Iron Age specially South India.
May be earlier used as funeral proceedings, later errected as memorial stones

Earliest Evidence of megalithic graves & funerary appendages

in India – 1872 but ,
archaeological efforts began in 1944 since than many found in South India
Mortimer Wheeler attempted to organise South Indian megalithic chronologically – found these are not as old as thought

Types (4 types below are representative of megalithic cult in India.)

Regional Variation & Sites

Bramagiri & chandravali (KR) – Dolmen Type – By Mortimer Wheeler
Coorg – by K.K Subhaya 4 site at Heggadehali – underground passage to cist – granite slab for funerary offering
Karnatak Megalithics – Sundara (1975) tried to show mutual borrowing both of neochalcolitgic & megalithic
- On examining of post holes cist – finds resemblance s with Mediterranean & Western Europe megaliths
Hallur & Paiyampali – show judicious use of rock (particular rock for particular tomb)
- Unique architectural ex – passage chamber
- Evidence of agri
Maharashtra Megalithic– by Nagpur Uni (1968) on bank of Krishna
- Takalghat site – evidence of habitation
- Mahurjhari – heaven of megalithic; BRW pottery

Vedarbha megalithic culture– Dhule, Amaravati , Paunar, Nagpur etc

North India Megalithic Culture

UP Megalithic- Banda, Allahabad, Mirzapur & Varanasi
- Cultural change in grave good – unlike south (microliths) iron objects found
- At koldihwa & khajuri -> chalcolithic megalithic b/w Varanasi & Kotta of Allahabad
Leh & Jhelum valley J&K
Raj & MP

Imp Points

Burials Rituals – m. Communities dominated by religious & supernatural beliefs- evident from elaborative objects associated with burials
- Different burials tradition indicates diff. Social & ethnic groups
- No regional convention regarding orientation of bodies or graves is observed.
Community life must exist indicated from mammoth task of erecting megalith but as data on settlement partner is absent-
- so difficult to construct social org ;
- might comprised of different professional groups , inferred fro Grave goods offered
Origin – appearance of culture, entirely exotic to pre- existing cultural canvas of the region lead to belief that megalithic builders arrived from West via Sea route ( from coastal region of Arabia)
Ethnic Affinity – authors of these may be people from Arabia who maintained gypsy like tented colonies (bred horses to trade with newly rising political centre around middle Ganga.
- River-Carnac relates these to Central Asian Tribes
- Sarkar (1960) – Scythian or Iranian based on Brahmagiri skeleton
Chronology – different assigned different
- Wheeler (1948) assigned date 2nd cen BC
- Sundara & Aiyapoan even extended megalithic to Neolithic times
This culture may not refer to as any prehistoric culture(custom among different communities from Neolithic time to Bronze Age & early historic period) ; Megalithic as living tradition in tribes
- Central Indian tribes ; Gonds, kurumbas, Morias, Savaras, Ho & Munda
- South Indian Tribes – Mottur village in TN – headless(god refused to come in hard time so local cut of head) anthromorphic statue c/a Valiyar Vadu
- Eastern Indian Tribes
  - Savaras of odisa– Gaur ceremony- on death of member( underworld re) – menhir errection
  - Ho & Munda of Chotanagpur – resembles Khasi Mehhir -> first cremate body, collect ashes & bones & then put in grave
- North Eastern Tribes (similarities b/w N.E & S.E tribes )
  - Garos (Meghalaya) – Y shaped wooden erected in memory (b. prevent misfortune) as in Indonesia & Oceania
  - Khasis (Meghalaya) – all 4 types all around Khasi hills, locally k/n as “kynmaw (

Oldowan Culture – Short Notes

The earliest tools tools have been grouped together in Oldwan tradition.Named so because tools of this type of first uncovered in lower beds at oldowan gorge.

Range of Culture: East Africa to Southern & Northern Africa, later Asia (tropical & ST) as hominids moved out of Africa, later temp. -early inhabitants of European & vallonet cave on the shore of the Mediterranean in southern France

Earliest Oldowan tools – Rift valley System of East Africa;
Koobi fora(Peninsula) Near Lake Turkana in Kenya – tools similar to Olduvai gorge dated back to 1.89 my to .4 mya by Glynn Isaac

Time Period

Human Species-

earliest ancestor veg (lacked large flesh ripping canines of other carnivorous animals) -> cultural soln (making tool) than biological change to have meet
- Addition of diet may be the reason of the success
not clear whether made by East African gracile (austropithecines) hominids(may be meat eater ; tool took over some function (like preparation before eating -> unspecialised tooth pattern due to expanded no. of food)
Less likely by robusts, as shown by dental specialisation (veg) – less cultural adaptations

Climate & Econiche – seems Savanna ecosystem; diet grassland plant & animal, near water bodies ; conscious control over the env: change env with behaviour or, if not possible change behaviour acc to env.

Natural selection began to select best culture (smart hunter & tool user -> better survival strategies.) -> select more complex brain

Tool Technology – Percussion Flaking ( Types 1. Hammer Stone 2. Anvil Hammer)

Tool Material – Quartzite

Tools – chopper ( remained flakes may have been used b/w finger & thumb as effective cutting or scraping tool) , later burins & hide scrapers also appeared

Society – Force of group cohesion -> Food Sharing (group division to find & then combine to eat) (not in other primates, chimpanzee but rarely) & cooperative behaviour in food getting ; systematic hunting imp part (

Hunting hypothesis by S. Washburn & C.S Lancaster – hunting -> division of labour (men hunting in band, female in camp, gathering food & caring .

case among many non human primates & human societies -> eg. Baboon (highly evolved division of labour & social control.)
Hominids may have developed – permanent pair bonds b/w M&F ->
- to reduce aggression b/w males
- Allow integration into co-bonding -> lessened sexual jealousy by limiting promiscuity
- Males would also help in protection & arranging food for female & child
communication system to make this all this cooperative behaviour possible.

Early Migration from Africa : Outside Africa first species was : Homo errectus -> may have followed herds of savanna harbivores

Migration was accombined by more technological sophistication -> allowed hominids to move into colder regions.

During Gunz & Mindel glaciation – some lived into temperate of Europe & in Riss glaciation in more colder area

During this time oldowan culture split into 2 diff culture & geographical groups (separated by mountain barriers) –

Mountain belt : Himalayas in east, Caucasus & Zagros in SW Asia & Carpathians inn SE Europe.

East & North of belt – elaboration of oldwan c/a Chopper tool culture
West & south of belt – evolved life style & way of making tools, spl,. Handaxe , kn as Acheulean culture.ओेसूलियन

Due to apparently distinct adaptive difference due to diff. Env , it is likely that two separate culture types existed at this time

Acheulean Tradition

Climate & Econich : grassland , tropical & subtropical latitudes -> optimum env for large & medium sized animals

Time Period : First appeared in. 1.2 may at Olduvai Gorge. Also found in Middle East, Africa & Java. In Europe till appearance of Mousterian tradition. & during end of tradition i.e during Riss glaciation -> moved into more colder regions -> started hunting mammoths (tundra survivor)

Human species : Homo errectus

Tool : Hand axe (logical improvement – two sharp edge meeting at one point.) – may be skinning, butchering & digging ) , cleaver (instead of point -3rd cutting edge

Tool Technology : evolved in several stages ; Soft hammer tech (control size & shape of flakes by bone or a stick as hammer ) – thinner axe

Tool Material : Stone & Bone & Wood

Sociocultural

Hunting large size tundra feddder animals , mammoth, in colder region
Controlled use of fire for warmth & cooking -> Vertesszollos (chopper tool site – 0.45 mya) & Torralba , Spain – bits of charcoal & charred bones
Shelter, culture adaptation due to cold weather, but seasonal moments also
More systematic hunter

Chopper Tool Culture

Found in more env & geographical ranges that Acheulean ; intermixed in Europe, N&E of Acheulian in East Asia, SE Asia : In India East of Indus River

Time Period : Holstein Interglacial (before Riss Glacialtion) ,which began around 425,000 year ago

Tools : Lacked handax

Tool Tech : Bipolar Working : (removal of flakes by striking against anvil, require percussion effect at both end of flakes )