5.0: Religion

Religion is one of the oldest behavioural pattern. It is defined as

Etymologically it come from Religare → to tie or to bind together

France Sociologist, EmileDurkheim in his “Elementary form of religious life” defined religion as – “A unified system of beliefs & practices relative to sacred things, things which are set apart & forbidden, belief & practices which unite into one single moral community called church, all those who adhere to them.”

Religion has moral basis b/c it imposes a moral pressure upon people to act in accordance with what is believed to be right or proper.
- Offer pattern of social control. As guilt feeling – wether or not he is acutely caught & punished.

Definition by Melford E. Sapiro: An institution consisting of culturally partnered interaction with culturally postulated superhuman being.

Religion is set of attitudes, beliefs, & practises pertaining to supernatural power, whether that power rests in forces, ghosts or demons. And approached by their believers with set of rites & rituals for fulfilment of various needs.

Rites : Act which is directed to some Supernatural entity
Ritual : Complex org of rites of particular occasion

Dynamic ness of Religion Due to – Rites, Ritual & Beliefs

Society distinguish b/w two level of reality; (i.e phenomena are divided)

profane or the ordinary every day natural world
Sacred or the extraordinary supernatural world
- Supernatural power believed to be not human or not subject to the laws of nature
Acc to Durkheim, Religion only consist of sacred phenomena only
What is considered supernatural varies from society to society & also within society at a given time or over time.
- Illnesses – natural action of bacteria & viruses or result of supernatural force
- In Judeo-Christian traditions, floods, earthquake, volcanic eruptions, comets & epidemic were considered but not now

Similarity, what is considered sacred in one society may not be considered in another.

4 Supernatural System in Simple Societies

Religion
Magic
Totem
Taboo

Modern definition – shifted from SN → it as cultural system

Acc to Geertz, “A religion is a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic”. This definition emphasizes four aspects:
- Religion is a body of things such a uch as ideas, objects, norms, myths and rituals.
- These things signify something with deep meaning or symbols for the people involved.
- This body of things or symbols constitutes an ordered system of knowledge about the nature of the world, about the way the world is organized ideally and about the rules people have to follow and behave to bring ideally organized world.
- Religion also presents this body of knowledge in such a context of reality, reverence and mystery that people want to believe it, to use it as a guide for behavior and actually do.

Conclusion – Thus all the definitions of religion emphasis that religion is a kind of human behaviour that the constituents of religion are beliefs & rituals concerned with supernatural elements & that religion is a part of the culture of every human society.

Universality of Religion

R belief & practices are found in all known contemporary societies
Archeologist -found evidence of religion beliefs 60,000 years ago – buried with objects for afterlife
Artistic production for religious purpose – 30,000 year ago – ex with ample 2° sexual characteristics ♀sculptures – may have been fertility charms
Many social scientists – particularly anthropologist, sociologists, & psychologists – have offered theories to account its universality.

Approaches To Study Religion

Introduction – Definition of Religion, As Religion is one of the oldest behavioural pattern. Thus many social scientists – particularly anthropologist, sociologist & psychologists (Now newly emerging from Neurologist) have offered theories to account for its origin, purpose & it universality.

Most think that religions are created by humans in response to certain universal needs or conditions. Few are

a need for intellectual understanding,
reversion to childhood feelings,
anxiety and uncertainty,
a need for community, and
a need for cooperation.

Evolutionary Approach

Shows religion as problem solving phenomenon.

John Lublock – English Ⓟ,
- first attempted to study Religion in evolutionary manner
- In his “The origin of civilisation & Primitive condition of Man” outlined following evolutionary scheme
- Atheism → Fetishism → Nature worship → Totemism → Shamanism → Anthropomorphism → Monotheism → Ethical Monotheism
E.B Tylor – Said – Religion originated in people’s speculations about dreams, trances & death. I.e for intellectual understanding And defined it as belief in supernatural being
- In his “Primitive Culture”(1871) outlined following evolutionary scheme
- Animism (earliest & Most basic form) → Fetishism → Belief in demons → polytheism → Monotheism
- Animism (the belief in soul or a dual existence for all things – physical(body) & psychic (soul) ) earliest form of religion)
  - As appearing in dreams ,even after death
- He said religion is Cultural universal.
- Criticism – to intellectual – not dealing with emotions
  - R.RMarett – it was to sophisticated to be idea of origin
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
- “Principle of Sociology” (1898)
- Similar approach as Taylor, but stressed on ancestor worship as basic form
James Frezer
- “The golden Bough” (1890) – tried to construct universal theory of magic, religion & S
- Religion → Result of dev of original magic stage of human culture
- Magic Theory : Primitive man → believed in overwhelming & instrumentalising supernatural thr magic → eventually similar belief about spirits by pleasing them thr prayers to solve his problems & needs.

Emile Durkheim – For him, evolutionary advancement of Religion is emergence of specific, analytic, profane ideas about ‘cause’ or category’ or relationship from diffuse, global sacred images
- Emotion of individual + collective consciousness in social environment → shapes individual’s religious feelings

Psychological Approch –

Religion as emotional response

Robert Marrett –
- He suggested Religion is not problem solving phenomena
  - Profound emotional response to aspects characterised by emotional Overtunes.
  - emotional aspects → origin of Ⓡ ; theories based on such assumption are c/l Emotive theories
    - Emotive factors, according to various schlors, are as follows:
      - Wilhelm wundt – Religion – projection of fear into envi.
      - Fetishism – emotional attachment to some object
      - Marrett – Animatism = basis of Religion
      - Acc to William James – Unspecified Emotions.
- Also suggested Animatism – a belief in impersonal supernatural forces (e.g., the power of a rabbit’s foot)—preceded the creation of spirits

Sigmund Freud → the father of psychoanalysis
- deep, subconscious psychological conflict in social group is responsible for development of religion
- Traces origin to family
  - child seeking to work out adequate r/l with parents (especially) father → Regards father as symbol of absolute power.
  - As grows → father’s supremacy as untenable (due to dynamics in to family owing to oedipus complex) :
  - Religion → fills the vacuum. → father substitute.
  - thus origin of religion → man’s belief in cosmic father to give him support once he had from his bio logical father.
- Totemism – dev as psychological response to sexual competition b/w father & son.
- Story of tyrannical man – believed that early human being lived in group each of which was dominated by a tyrannical man, who kept all women for himself.
  - Freud postulated that sons on maturity were driven out of the group out of the group. Later they got together & killed & ate the hated father.
  - But later on the sons felt enormous guilt & remorse which they expressed by prohibition of killing of a Totem animal that it father substitute
  - Subsequently on ritual occasion the Cannibalistic sene was repeated in the form of totem meal.
  - Freud believed that these early beliefs became transformed into worship of deity or Gods modelled after the father.

Recent advancement in psychological thought symbolic Ⓐ → Clifford Geertz → modem or primitive religion can be understood In integrated system of thought through symbolism

Functional Approach

By relinquishing the apparently futile search for origin of religion, Ⓐ became more concerned about functional & structural a/c of religion.

Functional approach explains role religion plays in life on individual & society. Functionalists, Malinowski & Brown, believe that’ part function therefore society continues.

Emile Durkheim –
- Acc to him, Religion exist in social context i.e Religion is expression of way society orders his life, media thr which society understand universe.
- Totemism – symbolic of god → totem ; Thus, God → personification of clan, Hence, all objects of Religion, symbolises social relationships & led to continuity in social groups. (He wrongly supposed it to be virtually universal)
Malinowski – acc to him religion has function of Tool of Adoption in upset state of mind & is integrating force
- He explained : Religion is intimately connected with emotional state of human i.e state of tension.
  - E.g Trobrianders Islanders → religious practices centred around fishing expedition.
- Purpose of Religion – purge human mind of it’s stress & strain
  - As Tool of adoption in upset state of mind – i.e cathartic in action
  - Secure mental, physical stability in individual’s life.
Radcliffe Brown – take diff stand,
- function is not cathartic but ; ultimate aim → social survival than of individual ; thr
  - Create feeling of dependence every
  - Attaining individual concurrence on social norms.
- Religion instal sense of dependence on human mind & fear of supernatural brings adherence of social norms.
- E.g → study of religion of Andamanese Islanders → for them main SN entity → spirit of dead, which appear in natural phenomena as sky, sea 🌊
Evan Pitchards –
- in his study of witchcraft in Azande → it has to be understand in social context
M.N Srinivas
- In his study of Coorg → very innovatively integrates social structure with Religion, which he finds operation At different levels (local, regional, peninsular & all india)
- Observes that various rituals bring social solidarity & unity among diff social segments.
British Ⓐ, Raymond Firth, Views religious org in terms of means for handling the fundamental problems of social org : “ For reducing uncertainty & anxiety, for increasing coherence in human relationships, for assigning meaning to human endeavour, for providing justification for moral obligation.”

Few points of Malinowski & Brown might appear opposed but they are not. they have to be taken as complementary features that is individuals is important to society & society to Individual

Structuralist Approach

Studies religion in postulation of universal logical pattern to human mind
Levi Strauss → tried to reveal grammar of mind, a kind of universal psychological Process which give rise to social structure
- Analyse Myths → Product of unconscious mind → can be used to understand the way human mind interprete the world.
- Religion → also product of Binary oppo.
  - study of totemic phenomenon having BO. of Nature & culture
- thus strauss proposes that primitive religious systems are like all Symbolic systems, fundamentally Communication systems.
Dumont (1959) takes structuralist perspective of religion manifested in worship of village deiti.
- Opposition of pure’ & ‘impure’ & interdependency of both values in religious thought.

Symbolic approach →

revamping of psychological approach
first recognised by Evan Pitchard
Studies meaning of religion thr symbols, meanings giving by participants to rituals, & it’s interpretation.
Victor Turner in study of Ndembu religious life
- Ritual
  - Life crisis ritual
  - Ritual of affliction.
- shows that Ndembu society is greatly marked by diff. ceremonies along with symbolic meanings attached.
Clifford Geertz– religion as a part of Cultural system
- symbols → vehicle of culture.
- importance of religion in society to be Studied thr meanings attached to it by people.
Mary Douglas
- sacred can be engraved in human minds with diff ways, thus it represent society.
- Symbols carries meaning only when studied in interrelation with one another.
- Religion is study of such symbols & their meanings.

Thought all approaches differ in interpretation they show holism in study of religion & all points out that Religion perform at-least following 3 functions

Establish Social order → thus remove anxiety
Bring social solidarity
Acting to reinforce the worldview

Conclusion – No Consensus about origin & purpose but principle of complexity of Religion & its’ Dynamism is accepted by all

anthropomorphizing—attributing human characteristics & motivations to nonhuman, particularly supernatural, events.
- Anthropomorphizing may be an attempt to understand what is otherwise incomprehensible and disturbing.

Theories of Origin of Religion

Monotheism & Polytheism

Religions differ in no of gods that their followers believe exist.

A belief that there is only one god or oneness of god is referred as Monotheism. Ex – Judaism, Christianity & Islam
In contrast, a belief in existence of more than one god is known as Polytheism. Hinduism is polytheistic religion

Both often though in just numerical term, but history of religions warns against such oversimplification.

There exist no historical evidence to prove one system older than other, but scholars assume Monotheism as higher form thus later developed.
In whatever form, polytheism was the norm for religion for thousand of years, while monotheism was very rare indeed.

Monotheism

Today, about half the world’s population practices one form of monotheism or another. Yet for much of human history, it was far from popular.
It is not just oneness of god, but his uniqueness i.e expression of divine might & power.
In these the belief, value & action system all three are determined in a significant way by the conception of God as one unique & personal being.
The conception of all other religions as idolatry (i.e as rendering absolute devotion or trust to what is less than divine) has often served to justify the destructive & fanatical action of the religion that is considered to be the only true one.

Types

Basic Monotheism
- Definition : believes only In one god.
- Characteristics : rejects all other beliefs, calls them “false religion”
- God of monotheism is personal god e.g. – Judaism, Islam, Christianity

Exclusive Monotheism

only one god exists, other gods do not exists at all or are failse/ demons. eg- Islam, Christianity, Judaism
Types of Exclusive Monotheism
- Ethical Monotheism – man chooses god which he needs & which he can adore
- Intellectual Monotheism – one god: logical result of question of origin of world.
Pluriform monotheism
- only one main god & others are manifestation of main divine god.
- effort solve problem of Divine Unity & Divine Pluriformity
- E.g kwoth spirit belief of Nuer tribe (a Nilotic pastoral people of E. sudan).
  - kwoth = spirit insky which manifests in diff forms.
- Ogala sious of USA.
  - 16 gods → divided in 4 groups but all eventually one → Wakan Tanka = the great spirit or the great mystery
Religious Dualism
- Some Ⓡ → dualistic. views universe as having two basic binary opposite principles e.g- good & evil, spirit & matter.
- Thus, concept of God & Antigod which is variation of Monotheism
- eg. zoroastrianism – Here Ormazd (good) Ahriman (evil god)

Polytheism

Most of the world’s religion have been polytheistic, meaning that they worship a collection of gods, k/n as a pantheon. These gods came in all shapes & sizes, from animistic spirits of natural forces, like animals, trees, rivers etc.. to anthropomorphic gods, which take the shape & characteristics of humans, to anything in between.
- In it god is impersonal, rather than a divine fluid that permeates the world including 옷 himself. So that Hinduism can say : tat tvam asi, literally “that is you” where that refers to the single, supreme reality or principle.
It is Belief in many gods. sometimes have supreme creator or focus of devotion as in hinduism.
sometimes hierarchy of god → one imp than others e.g- Buddhism.
Includes belief in many demonic & ghostly forces.
Characterised virtually all religion other than Abrahamic religions

Types

Henotheism aka Kathenotheism (Greek Kath hena theon – “One god at a time”)
- Belief in one main god, though worship of other gods is granted.
- Popularised by Max Muller in his study of Indian religions.
- Eg – vedic hymas ; was popular among hgly centralised monarchical govt. esp – in some period in Babylonia & Egypt
Kathenotheism → Worship of various gods at a time.
Unlimited Polytheism
- extreme poly. → belief in no. of gods of of diff names which can’t replace each-other.
- Along with number of gods, there are also no. demons.
- eg classical of Greece, Rome, India where millions of god exist.

Conclusion : Thus, analysis of history of Ⓡ reveals that spectrum of views falling b/w Basic Mono, to unlimited polytheism are falling in continuum.

Problems : The choice of either monotheism, or polytheism, however, leads to problems, b/c neither can give a satisfactory answer to all questions that may reasonably be put.

The weakness of polytheism is especially revealed in the realm of questions about the ultimate origin of things,
whereas monotheism runs into difficulties in trying to answer the question concerning the origin of evil in a universe under the government of one god.

There remains always an antithesis b/w the multiplicity of forms of the divine manifestations and the unity that can be thought or posited behind them.

Sacred & Profane

Emile Durkheim, for first time, understood religion in two opposite categories of sacred & profane. And acc to him the Dichotomy is universal & precondition for existence of religion. These both reflect classification of human experience, world, cosmos & all things surrounding them.

Sacred & Profane Dichotomy

On Study of Arunta Tribe E.D in his book, “Elementary forms of religious beliefs” (1912) shows dichotomy
These are like holy & common i.e sacred is religious & profane is non-religious
- ED states that scared is superior to profane in terms of dignity & seriousness.
- Thus he defined religion in terms of sacred
Sacred things in contrast to profane, are set apart as sacred things will be polluted by profane.
- Sacred things are forbidden and hedged with prohibitions.
Sacred is non-utilitarian & profane is utilitarian.
- Sacred : That are held in respect → r/l to supernatural
- Profane : consider to be items of utility → r/l to worldly
Durkheim has said that sacred order is symbolic representation of the social order.
- He proposed that totemism is not essential about that particular totemic emblem or thing, but it is about clan itself as symbolised by emblem. It is experience of social group alone that is capable fo generating in people the kind of intense feelings that sustains religion.
- Totem represent sacred force energy that Durkheim called “Mana” → this force, which is external to human being, is nothing but society itself.
- Thus Durkheim argued that sacred is not only social, but very form in which society represent itself to it‘s members
To approach sacred one must attain a degree of sacredness.
Sacred space and time: Sacred & profane cannot exist at same place and time. There is special time & place for religion and rituals (sacred things).
E.D believes Sacredness is not result of exterior dimensions or interior properties of an object. But It is result of collective conscience i.e attributed by society to the object.e.g. holy water (not chemical composition nor god revealed this as sacred but collective cons)
Acc to Mircea Eliade, man becomes aware of the sacred b/c it manifests itself, shows itself as something wholly different from profane.
- He uses the term Heinrophanies (other worldly) for sacred since it does not belong to our own world and can appear before us in the most varied guises.
- E.g. in a stone or tree, the person of holy man or in earthquake & epidemics
This dichotomy, according to Eliade & Durkheim is universally part of human existence. Evans Pritchard has observed the dichotomy among the Nuer community in ritual performance.
W. E. H. Stanner in his remarkable monograph on aboriginal religion has introduced a third category called “Mundane‘ abolishing the dualism.
- Concept of intermediate sphere → where sacred is not regarded as antagonistic
- However he said that, especially in the study of aboriginal Australians, the opposition of sacred and profane has found regular employment.

Origin of sacred : By E.D

he rejected theories of origin of Religion based on animism & naturism
Origin of sacred can be found in totemism of Australian aborigines. There exists sacred association b/w a clan, its members & the totemic entity,
In Arunta tribe totem is worshiped as it is believed to be saviour of the clan.

Criticism

Lloyd Warner has opposed the concept that sacred order is a symbolic representation of the social order.
- said that sacred and profane dichotomy cannot be used to show the social order.
British Anthropologist Jack Goody criticised Durkheim’s claim of universality of this dichotomy of all religions or cults.
- Many societies do not have words that translate into sacred or profane.
- The dichotomy was just a product of European religious thought rather than universally applicable criteria.
Some eastern religions like Buddhism disapprove this dualism and preach middle way. → i.e let go all conceptualisation of good or bad, S or P

Conclusion: Thus though opposed by some, sacred and profane dichotomy can be used to separate supernatural affairs from worldly affairs in human societies.

Criticism of Sacred & Profane

Despite profound influence on structural-functionalist school of British Ⓐ , many criticised.

Evans-Pitchardwhile studying Azande in C.Africa, argued that the sacredness might be situational
- Ex – shrines for Ancestor worship in Azande were Occasionally used for rituals, rest of the time for resting spears
W.E.H. Stanner
- Distinction was impossible to apply unambigously in studying Austrelian religion.
- gave concept of mundane.
Jack Goody many societies do not have words that translate as Sacred or profane. Thus, just like distinction b/w natural & superaturat, it was very much product of european religious thought than universal applicable.

Sacred & Profane Since Durkheim

American anthropologist W.Lloyd Warner → with his FW in New England town of Austrelia which he called “Yankee City”
- Wrote “The Living and the Dead (1959) → focused on Memorial day rites → which he observes are modern cult of dead & conforms to Durkheim’s definition of sacred Collective representation.
Mary Douglas in her classic work “Purity and Danger” (1966) Proposed sweeping crosscultural analysis of rules concerning Purity & pollution which confirms Durkheim’s central thesis that religious ideas depended on active seperation of antithetical domains

Myth & Ritual

Myth

Etymological word originated from Greek word “Mythos” meaning Saying or story etc
However according to Notes & Quarries, Myths are generally culture stories, culture specific, providing reason for status quo.
In words of Robert segal– Myth are stories about “Something significant”
Anthropologist Bruce Lincoln defines myth as “ideology in narrative form.”
It is a symbolic narrative of unknown origin, party traditional and relates to actual events and is especially associated with religious beliefs.

Mythology – is study of myths

Characteristics/features of myth

Myth existed in every society.
It is basic constituent of human culture.
There is so great variety of myths that it is very difficult to generalise about nature of myths.
A person’s myth reflects his/her self-image.
Unquestioned validity
Presents itself as authoritative factual account
Specific accounts of gods & supernatural beings

Functions/Importance of myth

Functionalist like Malinowski & Durkheim gave importance of myth as

Explanation of facts whether natural or cultural
- Myth about origin of corn in Abenaki (N. Americal Indian) Tribe.
- myth from Indonesian island about origin of life on earth.
Justification or validation: Explanation of ritual, cultic customs & particular behaviour of individuals, thus agency of social control.
Exhibits social power of solidaritylike religion
Legitimisesocial structure & thus help in preparing charter
Description: especially “unexplained” i.e what human can never see for themselves) ; like Origin of world, end of world e.g Preindustrial society’s myth.
Healing & Inspiration – e.g creating myths are recited when individual is sick in Navajo Indians of N. America

Theories About Myths

Malinowski’s functional theory
- Malinowski Propounded that Myths are more than idle speculation about origin of things.
- It justifies by precedence the existing things or order and it supplies a retrospective pattern of moral values.
- Believing in myth is more than infantile self-assurance; it is a device of education & learning of cultural and religious maintenance.
- Myths are important component of transition rites. They restate the first principle & belief system upon which people’s beliefs & social postulates rest.
- They are the fertile seabed from which grew the sacred book of great religions of later civilisations.
- Victor Tuner – Myths relate how one state of affairs became another: how an unpeopled world became populated; how chaos became cosmos; how immortals became mortal; how the seasons came to replace a climate without seasons; how the original unity of mankind became a plurality of tribes or nations, how androgynous beings became men and women and so on. Myths are liminal phenomena: they are frequently told at a time or in a site that is betwixt and between”.

Structural analysis of myths: (Claude Levi Strauss)
- As there is need to classify one of the Universal mental characteristics which is myths ;
- Strauss applied structuralism in analysis of myth & proponent that human has Universal Mental Structure that leads to people everywhere think similarly regardless of socio-cultural background.
- One of basic mental characteristics is to classify – which is done by humans in binary opposition, good & evil, white & black
- Myth is used to reflect on & symbolically mediate or resolve universal & culturally specific contradiction or oppositions.
- There is binary opposition b/w myths & folk tales.
- In the work “ The structural study of myth” (1963) → claims that ‘myth is a language’ → analyse myth similar to lang → Break down in constituent elements c/l “Mythemes” (i.e simple building blocks of myths)
- After this analysis, he concluded that one myth can be converted into another thr a series of simple operations.
  - Converting positive elements into negative
  - Reversing order of elements
  - Replacing gender of hero
- Ex. Strauss’s analysis of Cinderella converted to Ash boy.

Anthropological Views about Myths (not to include in Myth & ritual question)

19th century → “Nature mythology” (Taylor & Muller)

E.B. Taylor
- “Primitive man” concerned with natural world → tried to explain this by attributing soul → “ANIMISM”
- Thus origin of mythological ideas
- Also gave evolutionary sequence as Starting from mythological ideas & gradually progressing towards scientific ideas
Max Muller
- Myth → arising from language.
  - “disease of language
- due to lack of abstract nouns
James frazer
- Myths = misinterpretation of magical rituals (which themselves were misinterpretation of natural laws).
- Human beings ⇒ begin with unfounded belief in impersonal magic laws → when not worked → started belief in S.N. powers Controlling nature → thus rise of religious myths Meanwhile, continued to practice old magical rituals → thus myths used to justify them
  - thus Myths from Ritual”

20th century

Levi Strauss
- myths reflect patterns in mind and these patterns are more as fixed mental structures, specifically pairs of binary opposition. + Product of unconscious mind → thus useful to study basic undenying structure of society.
Malinowski
- Social function of myths.
- “mythic charter” → a legitimization for cultural norms & social institutions.
Eliade
- In his ‘Myths, Dreams and Mysteries’ myth have some type of essential Connection to ultimate sacred things that transcend cultural specifics.

21st century

Postmodemism each account of myth has It’s own cuttural significance & meaning
- challenged precedence that texts only Can be medium for mythology, arguing that other media as visual arts or even place-naring, could be as important.

Current Relevance → movies, etc.

Ritual

It is the performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by tradition or by sacerdotal (priestly) degree. In this social act participants reenact their relationship to sacred objects & beliefs. As performed at specific time & place so a rhythmic Act. It is basically based on “Do because the gods have done it so.”

Human is a ritual being striking parallel between his ritual and verbal behaviour.
Religious ritual: It is an act involving manipulation of religious symbols.
- Religious symbols are of two types:
  - Verbal: such as names of gods & spirits, phrases or songs etc.
  - Non-verbal or material : such as masks, statues, paintings, costumes etc.

Types of religious rituals

Junod (1908) & Arnold Van Gennep (1908) divided into 2 parts

Rites De passage – (Life, Birth, Marriage)
Rites of intensification

Other two are often cited

Individual rituals like vision quest
Celestial ritual – by clergy

Arnold Van Gennep :

Rites De Passage – these mark the transition of person from one social status to anther in almost all the societies e.g conception, birth, puberty, m’age or death etc
- Features – these are important & critical events of life cycle & are surrounded by religious rituals.
- Age set Society : here there are rituals during entry & exit from one set to another.
- There phases of these rituals
  - Seperation – Disengage from previous status & role
  - Transition – Removes barrier to new status
  - Reintegration – Acceptance of newly acquired status

Example : Marriage in Hindu Society

Seperation of girl from old home
Transition thr ritual into new status
Reintegration new house, responsibilities.
Three phases of funerary rites
- Separation phase – demonstration of grief & ceremonial burial
- Transition Phase – soul of dead taking form of ghost
- Incorporation phase – decreased is incorporated in new status of ancestor & no longer dreaded

Rites of Intensification : effect the group as a whole as result of environment changes.
- Ex – New Year, Baisakhi, Onam

Acc to R.C Brown, rituals from core of standing socio-Cultural practices

Ritualistic practices

are used individually or in combination to contact supernatural spirit

Prayer: request, praising vow etc.
Offering & sacrifices: first fruits of harvest are offered to god in Nuer.
Telling or acting of myths
Altering physiological state of an individual: trance, visual hallucination.
Music, dance, drama.

Nature of Rituals

Origin Approach
- W. R. Smith: Sacrifice acts as communication b/w primitive people and God. According to him origin of ritual is in totemism.
- Frazer: Search led to magic.
- Durkheim: totemism as the origin of ritual and religion in Australia.
- Freud : in his “Moses & Monotheism” → Origin = Sacrifices
Functional approach: (Brown and Malinowski)
- Functions of ritual in society.
- Ritual is an adaptive & adjustive response to the social & physical environment.

Types of rituals

Imitative rituals: It is patterned after myth. E.g. ritual of New Year (story of creation).
Positive & Negative rituals:
- Positive is renewing ritual and
- negative rituals involve avoidance (taboo).
Sacrificial ritual: It is earliest or elementary form of religion.
Life crisis rituals – passage from one domain of life to other such as rituals of birth, puberty, marriage, conception and death etc. Example- Hindu ritual of twice born (sacred thread ceremony).

Relation B/w Myth and Ritual

Myth & ritual are two central components of religious practice. They are commonly united as parts of religions.
Most common approach to relation b/w the two is myth-ritualistic theory:
- According to this theory myth does not stand by itself but it is tied to ritual.
One developed from other theory‘ is refuted.
Different views
1. Ritual from myth : E.B. Tylor
  - Analogous to relation between science & technology.
  - Ritual is application of myth.
2. Myth from ritual: (Primacy of ritual theory)
  - William Robertson Smith: ancient religion had centrality of ritual and modern religion has centrality of doctrine.
  - James Frazer: According to him myth emerges out of ritual during natural process of religious evolution. In his Golden Bough he discussed evolution of science as follows:
    - Magic (Ritual based on magic) → Religion → Science
    - Acc to him myth changes but customs (rituals) remains same
- Myth & Ritual as Non-Coextensive
  - Walter Burkert : both were originally independent & they come together to reinforce each other
  - Bronislaw Malinowski – myths give sanctions to rituals but many cultural practices besides ritual have myths.

Conclusion : Though there is no consensus about relations b/w myth & ritual, it is well established that both reinforce each other.

Form of Religion in Tribal & Peasant Societies

Religion is oldest belief system existing in all societies. Various forms of religion exist in tribal and peasant societies such as animism, animatism, Totemism etc. However tribal religion has undergone change over the period of time due to contact with outside world. Moreover a single society may have more than one forms of religion.

Meaning of religion: Religion constitutes beliefs, rites & rituals and supernatural being. In other words religion is a behavioural pattern in which there is belief in supernatural being which is considered all powerful and the supernatural being is approached by followers through a set of practices such as rites and rituals to achieve their needs.

Differences in religious forms from society to society are due to differences in these three elements.

Animism

Start with definition of religions

Etymologically the word originated from Latin word “Anima” meaning Soul. So Animism is belief in soul or supernatural / spiritual being. It is based on doctrine that all objects have inner psychological being.

Ex. It is traditional belief pattern of African people.
In this type of religion there are different types of spirits such as spirits dwelling in rocks, mountains, rivers, rainfall etc.
- For example in Korwa tribe there are two types of spirit.
  - benevolent spirit – does not harm anyone and this is seldom worshiped.
  - malvolent spirit which is an evil spirit and worshiped a lot.

Taylor’s Animism

EvolutionistE. B. Tylor in his book ‘Primitive Culture’developed concept of animism & refers it as minimum definition of religion.
He defined it as “belief in Anthropomorphic supernatural being”. Thus, belief that no-human objects too have souls.
Origin of religion
- Acc to him, lies in Animism of primitive societies
- which he explained thr Dream- Death experience of man i.e experiences of shadow, echo, trances, which forced “primitive philosophers” to assign self-like agency to other objects.
- Thus primitive 옷 must have developed belief that soul are Internal & external & began to worship entity of soul.
Type of Animism
- Lower Animism – soul can’t be punished for it’s deeds
- Higher Animism – even soul can be punished
Taylor’s Scheme of Religious Evolution –
- Being evolutionist, Taylor saw belief in soul as most ancient belief, thus making Animism as earliest form of religion.
- He gave evolutionary sequences
  - Animism → Polytheism → Monotheism

Critics of Taylor’s Animism

Durkheim rejected possibility of formation of religion on just phenomenon of illusion
R.Maret– based on his study of Malenesians
- No such thing as soul , but there is Animatism which is earliest form.
Concept of “primitive philosopher” is criticised as primitive man must have engaged in survival activity, not thinking about soul.
Malinowski, Brown, criticised taylor’s concept of survival’

Contribution of Animism to Anthropological Studies

Acc to Mawin Harris → gave concept of universal Series of man’s life which is Duality i.e. day & night, soul & living, hot & cold
Which latter developed in principle of Binary oppo.

Animism & other social institutions

Animism & kinship → Non humans participate in Kinship system & ceremonies of human + have their own
- eg-Harvey’s study on Maori Community → offer prayer to sweet potato before diggin it up as before belief to have reth with it.
Socio-political impact → Acc to Harvey, animism belief of personhood challenged modem rationality as it assigns “Intellectual, rationality’ to nonhumans also.

Animism in contemporaray society

with increasing complexity of religion, complexity of animism also increases Ex –
- Buddha’s consciousness in Buddhism
- Belief in spirits in Hinduism
Korwa tribe believe in spirit for – crop , rainfall & cattle. there are two types of spirit.
- benevolent spirit – does not harm anyone and this is seldom worshiped.
- malvolent spirit which is an evil spirit and worshiped a lot.

Animatism (Manaism, Bongaism)

It is belief in generalized impersonal power over which people have some sort of control.

R. Marret, in his study of Melanesian tribe, coined the term & concept animatism in his book “Threshold of Religion (1909). He refers it to “belief in singe, universal transferable, supernatural power,”. Anthropologist also calls it as Mana.

The most famous example of this type of belief is Melanesian concept of Mana

Mana is generalised, impersonal power which may manifest itself in both living and non living object as quality or attributes . The word is derived from language of Melanasia.

There are two types of Mana
- High Manna with high power
- Low mana with low power
The performance of being depends upon amount of mana present in it.
- Mana gives power, success & strength
- Ex – it is believed that master craftsmen excells in his skills due to possession of Mana.
Marret studied Melanasian, & found that tribes have belief that chief possessed large amount of Mana. But when chief dies, this mana is transferred to new chief; So, Mana is universal and transferable.
According to marett, melanasian are living in condition as primitive as early man. Therefore their belief should form earliest form of Religion. That’s why, it is also called as evolutionary theory of religion.
Mana is single transferrable force, hence origin of religion should be monotheistic and later it evolved to polytheistic.
- Mana →Monotheism → Polytheism
Marrett also proposed that primitive people treated objects as having life, will etc. but did not differentiate between body & soul as proponded by Taylor.
- Thus he believes Animism arose out of animatism.

Bongaism

In Munda, the power is called as Bonga.
Among Bonga, cycle is a Bonga, the powerful steam engine is a greater Bonga & airplane is greatest Bonga f

Criticism

Assuming melanesian as primitive as early man & they have not changed a bit in last 2 million yrs is impossible.
Marret →early 옷 as philosopher & but not possible = engaged in survival
opposed by taylor: Poly → Mono.
Belief in single, universal, SN power is one of feature of religion. Marrett is silent on how later features like values, rituals were added to Religion.

Fetishism

The term fetish derived from word ‘Feticos’ refers to skill fully man-made object which believed to have supernatural powers.

Fetish objects are believed to posses supernatural power b/c it is occupied or possessed by supernatural beings. Ex of objects are piece of jewellery, piece of wood, stone etc.
A fetish object may be adored or insulted depending upon whether it fulfills or doesn’t fulfill its possessor’s wishes.

Essentially Fetishism is an attribution of inherent value or power to an object. Or refers to worship of fetish object.

the Term was first Portuguese to refer to objects used in religious cult by West Africans i.e popularised in Europe by Fanel Brosses while comparing west African religion to magical aspects of Ancient Egyptian religion.
Auguste Comte – In his theory of Evolution of religion, proposed fetishism as earliest stage followed by Polytheism & Monotheism
- Some artifcats used in Monotheist religion (Holy cross, etc) are incarnation of festishism
According to August Comte and Brosses, religion originated from fetishism.

Case Study & Example

practiced in Voodos of Togo where fetish objects are blood, bone, fur, claws etc.
Henry Hessler in his “Primitive Religion in India” referred to fetishism in India : Bondo follow it ; where sword is a fetish object. (I.e sword of superior)
- Rajput worrier (Pathkonda Mahaprabhu) saw sister naked husking grain → felt remorse → turned into sword 🗡
- Bondo hide it in banyan tree → At Sisa Festival, climb tree, bring it down, worship & put back

Contribution/ Accomplishments

Tylor & McLennan – Fetishim shifted attention from r/l b/w people & god to people & material objects
Fetishism is present in all religion. Sometime used in study of religion e.g in Traditional West African beliefs.

Criticism

Monotheists practitioners deny Auguste comet’s vision

Naturalism

Originally, It was proposed by of Max Muller & supported by Revilleto designate the worship of nature. It is worship of nature because of belief that supernatural power has manifestations in things of nature.

e.g Roaring of clouds, Earthquakes – are expression of supernatural power
In chota Nagpur → some tribals sacrifice pig on hill top during prolonged drought to please rain good → thus respects Supernatural power of nature

Genesis of Naturalism

Keary : – is in childlike wonders of primitive man, having no idea of god, & who views natural phenomena beyond his control and comprehension and makes the things themselves god by worshiping them as were conscious of his own agency, yet unable to distinguish b/w soul & body.
Naturism explains → Man originally was destitute of nature → Ignorant awe in face of natural forces → Naturalism
This theory is sometime c/l Personification of Natural Forces,
- but scholars argue that personification, in its strict sense of attributing person’s value to things, was beyond primitive man’s power & appears only in later form of developed belief.
Acc to this belief the roaring of clouds, lightening and earthquakes etc. are manifestations of supernatural power. E.g. when there is flood in river it causes huge damage. Hence it has to be worshiped by animal sacrifice to tame the river.

Taylor considered nature -worship as connecting link b/w Fetichism & Polytheism

Totemism

It was first explained by Emile Durkheim. The word totem is derived from Ojibwae Lang of North American tribeword “dodem’ which is a phenomenon where each clan is associated with some animal or plant with which they have mystical relationship. It is also believed to be originated from ototem’ an ojibwa word for friend, relative or kin.

Ex – E. Durkheim considered Austrelia as home of totemism
Totem → interact with kin groups or individual & serve as their emblem or symbol.
Totemism is manifested in various forms depending upon context, most often found in hunting – gathering community.

Features of totemism

Here each society is divided into several segments such as clan and each segment recognizes mystical relationship totem (certain type of animal, plant or natural phenomenon.) r/l ↠ worshiping.
There is taboo against killing or harming of the totem animal as it is considered savior of the clan.
Each totemic segment is an exogamic group.
Periodic collective worship of totem animal and its ceremonial killing ; for multiplication & perpetuation of species.
Totem can be of an individual or of a group.
Belief that totem souls are born & reborn.

Group & Individual Totemism

Group Totemism
- Mystical association of animal, plant or natural species with unilineally related groups
- Hereditary transmission of totems
- E.g Africa, India, Oceania (especially Melanesia)
Individual Totemism
- Intimate relationship b/w person and particular natural object
- Totem can grant special power to owner
- Simultaneous existence (hurting one result in hurting other) → thus strongly tabooed)
- E.g Austrelian aborigines & American Indians.

Case studies

Birhor (chota nagpur) → patrilimeal, exogamous totem grp.
- belief: each totem → fortuitous connection with birth of ancestor of clan.
- temperamental & physical similarities beth clan member & totem.
  - Yearly offering to chief spirit at ancestral hill (great fear of spirits).
NOY-papua (Papua New Guinea) → patrilinned, exog totem grp.
- associated with animals (especially fish)
- belief: they are born from totem.
  - Thus taboo
  - children given option to choose b/w paternal or maternal totem

Theories of Origin of Totemism

J.F. McLennan “The worship of animals and plants”
- All human race in ancient times gone thr totemic stage
- but didn’t explained origin of totemis – but said it was originated thr combination of fetishism & exogamic descent.
E.B. Taylor
- Criticised McLennan…
- rejected confusion b/w totemism & worship of animals.
- totemism → tendency of human to classify worldly things.
- opposed it as basis of religion
James Frazer → “Totemism & Exogamy” (1910)
- first comprehensive work
- research: Austrelia & Melanesia.
- origin of totemism → conceptionalism (interpretation of conception & birth of al children).
- women impregnate due to spirit of animal or spiritual fruit enters her womb.
- resulted in beginning of totem clans.
Emile Durkheim → gave concept of totemismo : Theory of Sacralisation
- explained totem from sociological & theological of view it point
- Studied Austrelian tribe Arunta → considered them as most Primitive thus religion most primitive.
  - origin of religion : totemism → polytheism → Monotheism
- For him, sphere of the sacred is reflection of the emotions that underline social activities thus
  - religion as social life written in symbolic language. &
- totem was : reflection of group (clan) consciousness ;
- Religion → collective consciousness → manifested in individual affinity with totem, taboo, symbols , rituals
Malinowski
- Viewed totemism from biological & psychological perspective & not as cultural phenomena
- Thus Totemism = desire to satisfy basic human need in natural world.
Franz Boas & R.C. Brown
- R.C Brown – study of totemism in African tribes : did not lan totem but nor respect nor fear their totem.
  - Acc to him totemism → General tendency to characterise segments of community thr connection with portion of nature.
- Both were found its impossible to fit totemism into single category → thus difficult to define.
- Both were unconvinced that institution of totemism was real.
Levi- strauss in (Totemism, 1963)
- critique of totemistic phenomenon.
- study of structure of totemism thr illustration of abstract polarities that saw totemism as phenomenon of culture.
- Binary opposition : nature & cutture.
  - nature → species of animails, plants
  - Culture → mystic identification of indi- or group with totem.
- 4 kinds of relationship between N&C within totemism each combination correspond with phenomena that are to be observed in one people or another
  - species identified with (i.w) particular group eg- Austrelian aborigine,
  - species identified with individual. intreg- N. American Indians.
  - Particular animal/plant i,w. individual Eg- Mota people (Melanesia)
    - child incarnation of particular animall plant mother ate at the time she was conscious of pregnancy.
  - particular animal / plant i’w.group.
    - e.g- Polynesia & Africa → group patronge.

Critics

Russian American ethnologist Alexander Golden weiser – challenged idea of totemism as having common properties using his Comparative study on Austrelian Abort & Brith Colombians

Magic

Introduction : As defined by James Frazer in “The Golden Bough” Magic is technique designed to achieve specific goals by manipulating the supernatural.

Frazer’s Concept of Magic

emphasised that Magic is technique ( i.e aspect of technology)
This technology involves certain skills & competence for manipulate or controlling supernatural i.e to act in certain intended way
Magic either meant for good (Rain, Fertility, cure of illness, crops ) or Evil purpose (creation of death, illness, harm, famine)
Acc to him Magic existed earlier than religion

Malinowski’s Concept of Magic

Acc to him Magic consists of Acts or belief thr which individuals try to control nature where their technology & natural techniques are insufficient.
- e.g.- Magical practices of Trobriand Islanders – they of k/n of env
  - Adjust agri. with season
  - built canoes
  - build Yam gardens
- but destroyed by storm & heavy rain.
- believe that beyond their control & their k/n about nature is limited
- Therefore in all such helpless situations they take recourse to magical acts.
Thus, Malinowski theories → function of magic = To alleviate anxiety in face of uncertainity.

Both Frazer’s & Malinowski argue that magic is Primitive science b/c it come into existence when the rational techniques are insufficient to control natural phenomena.

Elements of Magic

Acc to By Raymond Firth (1958), magic involves three elements

Practitioners – may be individual himself or specialist such as Shaman, magician or priest.
Practical Aim – wide range of objectives. Which can be classified as
- Protective – prevent harm to individual or cure him of illness
- Productive – b/c they include the desire for a successful hunt,↑ crop, rain & success in courtship & love making
- Destructive – include desire to harm or destroy one’s rivals or enemies.
Magical Formula
- 3 aspects of it ;
  - Things used – Instruments or medicines
  - Things spoken – Spells (acc to Malinowski, the effective force lies in it )
  - Things Done – Rites
- parents in any magical formal ; relative importance may vary from f to f & society to society.
  - Societies located in African continent South of the Sahara desert or which originated in Negro Africa – major imp on medicine
  - Societies in Melanesia, Micronesia & Polynesia place great emphasis on the spell.

Forms of Magic

Frazer’s classification – on the basis of laws or principle of thoughts associated ; found MF based on two principle thoughts
- Law of similarity – Like produces like or effect resemble its cause
  - Associated Magic → Homeopathic / imitative / mimetic Magic
    - attempt to injure or destroy person with belief that if Image suffers, man die.
  - eg- oraons (chotanagpur)
    - belief : thunder → direct cause of rain.
    - Go on hill, sacrifice pig, flinging down Stones to resemble noise of thunder.
  - Ho light fire & expect that rain will come from formed cloud.
  - Khonds of Ganjam Hills in Orissa practice human sacrifice as they believed taht tears rolled down the victim’s eye & blood gushed forth from victim’s wounds so would it rain.
  - Burning of effigies
- Law of Contact – once in contact, always in contact
  - Associated magic → Contagious magic
    - Magical sympathy believe to exist b/w man & his any served part (hair, nail)
    - E.g it is reason that tribals burry person’s belongings with him, don’t use each other cloths.
Firth’s classification on basis of their aim, the ends or functions they Surve.
- Productive Magic – include the desire for a successful hunt,↑ crop, rain & success in courtship & love making
  - Hunting, fertility, rain, Security, trade, barter
  - Socially approved
  - Factor for organisation of economy & social activity
- Productive Magic – prevent harm to individual or cure him of illness, guard Property, avert misfortune, cure sickness, safety in travel
  - Socially approved or disapproved
  - Serves as form of social control
- Destructive Magic – to destroy, Property, death, sickness
  - Form of harmful sorcery & witchcraft
Other Classification – on basis to end to achieved by serval anthropologist
- Black Magic
  - Use of magic, SN beings or SN power to deliberately harm or destroy another person, groups, community, cattle, crops, property or personal achievement is k/n as black magic
  - It is malicious & anti-social – i.e destructive
  - It may be homeopathic magic & contagious magic.
  - Both Sorcery & Witchcraft
- White Magic
  - Use of magic, SN beings or SN power to do good to another another person, groups, community, cattle, crops, property or personal achievement is k/n as white magic
  - Beneficial to the individual & society.
  - It has social approval
  - Include both protective magic & productive magic
  - Includes both homeopathic & contagious magic.

Magic & Religion

Religion is defined as belief in supernatural being which is approached with the help of some rites & rituals. Whereas Magic is defined by Frazer as a technique designed to achieve specific goals by manipulating the supernatural.

There are various similarties & difference b/w these two

Similarities : W.J. Gudey in his work “Religion among primitives”

came up with idea of “Magicoreligious continuum”
Acc to him, there is Great deal of similarity & very thin line of demarcation.
Concept : both are concerned with Non emperical aspect (ie. beyond logic & experimentation) intangible & Nonjusticiable things.
R/l to Science : Both are cognitive systems, systems of idea & opposed to cognitive system of science at level of casuality.
- In sci, notion of causuality objective
- In M&R, notion of causality → presumed or presupposed.
Supernatural : both believe in existence of supernatural power or unseen order
Involves set of functionaries & place such as priest, Shaman, sorcers, witch, priest etc & place of performance of rites & rituals
coexistence of M & R
- same place /Society : Tobriand islanders – R&M at same place at time of worship of totem.
- same person: In Dahomeans of Africa (studied by Herskovitz)
Function : arises & funn in situations of emotional stress → tool of adoption.
Technique both are ritualistic, governed by traditional order & formulated procedures.
Both surronded by taboos & observance
Both are Pervasive and symbolic. i.e. traditional /ordinary objects are assumed to be endowed with religious & magical power.
Approach : Both are imbibed with mystery of the world. Religion seeks explanation in terms of spirits & god & magic in terms of forces.

Differences : Durkheim first to distinguish R& M by differencing sacred & profane, Later Frazer explained dichotomy

Feature	Religion	Magic
Notion of God	God is viewed as supernatural power exercising control over natural and social order	Notion of variety of spirits is common. Hierarchy of spirits is concept in magic.
Practitioner’s attitude towards Supernatural	• priest occupies lower position than god • idea of pacification of SN (beg for favour)	• Magician regards himself superior• thinks that he can control SN . • attitude coaxing & forcing, pray
Nature of goal	• non-utilitarian, collective & abstract• cannot be attained instantly.	• utilitarian, individualistic & pertains to material world.• can be attained instantaneously.
Relationship b/w practitioner & follower	• as priest and follower.• r/l is enduring • social & moral aspect important	• Professional & Client • R/l transient i.e as purpose solved come to end • specificity of cause • here mostly individual Is involve exception – Tobrind I. Beanti Magic → Collective exercise
Condition of performer	•priest is emotionally involved • worships with great devotion • leading to change in psychology of performer	• Instrumental behaviour • Materialistic view • Exception – Evan Pitchard’s study that purpose → serious of Azande found – it purpose serious, magician → deeply involved
Nature of rituals	•fixed in advance (mostly day time), public nature & division of labour • Ingredients easily available • Primary of belief• Initiative values of ritual are more imp.	• never fixed in advance, held secretly and time & place are fixed at last time by magician, no division of labour • ingredient → not easy • Primacy of secrecy • Ritual provide instrumental values.
Significance for society	• creation of society creates social integration & solidarity • religious practices are routinised & institutionalised	• creation of section of society • produces divisive forces in societY • promotes interests of a section of society.• Difficult to routinise as death of magician being end of school of thought

As put in the words of Raymond William Firth argued that one can find overlapping of the religions & magical practices. It is only after careful observation & investigation one can differentiate magic from religion in primitive societies b/c in primitive societies what is primarily classified as magic can also contain elements of religion.

However, Acc to Frazer Magic is everywhere uni from in its principles whereas religious diversities are more common everywhere.

Exceptional Example of Tobriand Islanders

Every aspect of life → connected with Magic
- King thr soccers perform magic
- No physical punishment but threat of magic
Believe that Magic rituals given by almighty
- Thus, Fundamental role in social hierarchy
- Commoner → Garden (magician) → sorcer → King 👑

Thus relation b/w society & Magic is comparable to relation b/w society & religion in other societies.

Magic & Science

Magic technique designed to achieve specific goals by manipulating supernatural. Whereas Science Process of knowning unknown thr known. Reproducible, factudi, repetitive & rational.

Similarities,

Ⓟ like Taylor, frazer, Malinowski delineated similarities b/w M & S

Mechanistic procedures –
- both depends on it. The
- Magician follows same type of process as scientist
Mechanical fashion of belief assumption
- Both assume existence of non varient relationships & operations on of impersonal causes in mechanistic fashion.
- Frazer: Two are essentially same, only difference, Magic based on wrong assumptions regarding casual rel.
Specialist, special equipments, ingredient required by both.
language of both → typical one.
Both have to face failures
- though more in magic
oriented towards desired end
Reveal confidence of humans in their ability to bring about results.

Differences

Features	Science	Magic
Deals with	Natural world	Supernatural world
Based on type of assumption	On true & logical assumptions	wrong assumptions regarding casual relations. Frazer c/l it Pseudo Sister of science → if becomes logical & true → science
Attitude	of science → matter of fact	Of magic is element of amazement, expectation, uncertainty etc
Causes	Assumes only natural casuals → arrives at result after observation, experiment & Verification	Assumes occult causes & works it atm of uncertainty , excludes verification
Failure	of science due to inadequate k/n & can be corrected by further research	of magic → due to some error in rituals performance or due to counter magic
Application of laws	Laws are applied logically	laws given +ve result in science are applied illogically in magic

Thus, Magic & science Though have similarities in some aspect; they are widely different regarding their assumptions, laws & attitude.

Religion & Science

Religion constitutes beliefs, rites & rituals and supernatural being. In other words religion is a behavioural pattern in which there is belief in supernatural being which is considered all powerful and the supernatural being is approached by the followers through a set of practices such as rites and rituals to achieve their needs.

Science is careful study of the structure and behaviour of the physical world, especially by watching, measuring, and doing experiments, and the development of theories to describe the results of these activities.

Difference – Tylor, Frazer, Malinowski gave the differences between Religion and Science. They are enumerated below.

Features	Religion	Science
Openness to Change	closed system of thoughts & beliefs	open system thoughts & beliefs.
Sacredness	beliefs are sacred	is secular and there is no any sacredness.
Questioning	Not to be questioned	Not considered absolutely valid – open
Empirical testing	not open for it	open to empirical testing.
Groups	Religion is collective	individualistic
Emotionality	Religion is more emotional.	less emotional or even emotionless.
Society	Religion is mostly benevolent and social welfare oriented.	can be malevolent or benevolent.
Ultimate or Mean	Religion is an end in itself.	is goal oriented.

Religious Functionaries

Both religion & Magic consists of – Belief, supernatural being, rites & rituals

But supernatural is approached in specific manner

in some societies ordinary persons are able to deal directly but otherwise
which is not possible for common man, so needs specialist, either part timer or ful timer

The religious (magico-religious) functionaries are intermediaries b/w men & supernatural beings. These specialists perform certain tasks for both men & supernatural being (communicate & interpret the wise of men & SN respectively to other). They employ diff function to perform these functions

Divination – to foretell further events
Ceremonies, rituals & offering – to please SN Beings
Prayer – to cajole gods & spirits
Magic – practiced to manipulate & coerce them

Significance

b/c function imp to both being & SN being → these are imp member of local group
In small political communities → even headmen
In large political communities →may exercise mere influence than the political leader

Research reveals four types of religious practitioners : Shamans, Priests, Sorcerers & Witches

Shaman

Acc to Mircea Eliade , the word Sharman is from the nomadic herders & marginal cultivators of Central Asia such as Tungus of Siberia. Shaman is socially recognised religious practitioner having special supernatural power that are used to serve as intermediary b/w supernatural & individual. The Practice is called ‘Saman’

Requirement to Entry in profession → Varies society to society

child showing extraordinary qualities → recognised culturally as shaman. Eg
- Eskimos → Child strongly inclined towards drumming
- Angami Naga → tendency of dreaming more
- Maria Gond → Extraordinary physical behaviour, having Knot in hair
Trained by elder shaman
Usually part time males specialists but female are also found
If a shaman repeat let fails to effect a cure, he will probably lose his following, for he has lost the support of the spirit.

Features

Usually Part time
High social status
Often also a healer thus aka Medicine Man
Either male or female
Generally found In egalitarian societies & don’t possess regular secular power.
Ecstasy i.e enters in trance or altered state of consciousness journey to other world → talks to spirits → Main feature by Mircea Eliade

Functions of Shaman

Shamanistic activity has important therapeutic effect on its client → relieved of illness & show cathartic effect of rituals.
Discover cause of illness & cures it.
Shaman serves as medicine man for all types of illnesses (natural & supernatural) methodology used is going into trance. Magic is also used
Imp integrating function for as society as variety of symbolic act of shamanistic performance bring together various religious benefits practices & people.
Also take help in some practical matters such as getting food resources.
Also bring news from SN world, such as warning about an impeding disaster.

Example

In coastal communities of South America, Shaman makes an annual spiritual trip to the bottom of sea of persuade sea goddess to ensure abundance of sea resources for one more year
Shaman is called by diff. Name
- Dusari inBhuia (M.P)
- Sira inMaria Gond
- Bhopa inBhill etc

Significance of Shaman

Integrating function in Society
- Variety of symbolic acts → beings together people
cures illness
Advisor & communicator with Super natural power

Criticism

Alice Kehoe in her book “Shaman & Religion” criticised Mircea Eliade’s argument citing ritualistic practices as definitive of Shamanism
Mihaly Hoppal disapprove word “Shamanism” & suggest “Shamandhood” for stressing on diversity of concept
Piers Vitebsky – No unity in shaman over world
Halkan Rydvian – Shamanism is ‘Scientific illusion’

Mircea Eliade’swork on Shamanism : “Shamanism : Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy” → Historical study of Shamanism from diff parts of world

Argues that pure Shanist occur in hunting & pastoral societies (thus Siberia & Central Asia)
Argues that Shamanism all over the world → must have common source of original religion of humanity in Palaeolithic.

Priest

A priest is Ceremonialist who operates as representative of group and under it’s approval.

Featrues

Member of religious org
fulltime male specialist who officiate at public event
very high status in society,
perform religious practices for community.
association with king – complete legitimacy & autonomy
certain priest may acquire status of chief
Acquires special identity by special clothing or special hairstyle
Thought to be in communication with superior god beyond reach of ordinary people.
found in large societies with elaborate culture & organised religious cult and Surplus food production.
specialised training → fasting, training in rituals, bearing of dogmas of their religion

Appointment

succession is mostly hereditary > sometimes political appointment.
unlike shaman, even if rituals fails, priest retain his status as failure is explained as unworthiness of people of S.N. favor.

Functions

officiate at public event
perform religious practices for community
They are in collusion with Kings & chiefs & help them in sorting political problems.
Priest attempts to persuade SN thr Prayers, offering & sacrifice

Example

Leopard Skin Chief among the Nuer is priest.

Witchcraft

There is difficulty to define witchcraft as Practice of magical skills varies culturally

Acc to Evan Pitchards, witchcraft is an innate & hereditary and often an unconscious capability to work evil.
In his classical work in Azande, he distinguished b/w Witchcraft & Sorceryby their technique.
- defined witchcraft : innate, inherited ability to cause misfortune or death
  - for Azande, witch craft involved unconscious psychic power, emanating from black swelling near liver.
  - For malevolent purposes
- However, Azande referred sorcery as performance of ritual, uttering of spells
However this distingation not valid all over
- thus many Ⓟ uses words “witch” and witchcraft for distinction.

Features of witches

incorporate non human powers → work with animals like shake, owl, cats.
bear physical stigma-like redeye, Devil’s mark.
socially important – at time of crisis.
harm own kins rather than strangers.
motivated by envy & malice rather than material gain.
unsocial behaviour.
- commit incest
- Cannibalism
- naked
- Work at night
almost always immoral
In contrast to Shaman, both sorcerers & witches has low social & economic status in their society.

Study on witchcraft

Evan Pitchard (1937)
- shows how witchcraft formed an “ideational system” among Azande.
- Argues that theory of witchcraft did not exclude empirical knowledge of cause-effect.
- example → Granary collapse → injured many
  - People know b/c of termites eat support
  - but go to
  - Witch to know why that indi.coere sitting at time particular moment under Gremary
Kluckhohn (1944)
- in his study of Navaho Propose psychological theory of witchcraft
- Witchcraft among Navaho seves as channel for projecting emotions of guilt, desire & aggression
- under stress → witches as target
- thus accusation of witches = gives opportunity to Navaho to express hostility, feelings against them whom they otherwise had not expressed.
Sociological theories of Conflict → inspired analysis W of in 1960s
- Marwick (1965)→ witchcraft accusation are manifestation of problematic social relations
- ex – among chewa of zambia accusatich occur when matrilineage grow begond size that it can accomodate thus gives chance to break off ties.
Steadman (1985)–
- study among Hewa of PNG → killing of witches due to contict for resources b/w diff. parties
- thus way to threaten other parties.

Witchcraft in Modern times

not disappeared in modem world.

Contemporary mediterrean societies → concept of “evil eye” 🧿 certain persons bringing bad fortune.
Portugal → mother fix amulets ground garments of babies to ward of evil.
France – witchcraft is invoked to present misfortunes like alcoholism, impotence
USA– Wicca tradition, Neo-paganism

How can society deal with witches in its midst

witch detection: divination
combat against witches: counter-witches in Africa: category of “witch doctor” introduced by British anthropologists
remedies against the effects of witchcraft through counter-magic; expulsion of witch;
Europe, “final solution” = witch hunting
- Cases of witch hunting- medieval europe, India- Assam, Jharkhand, Odisha

Cases of witch hunting– medieval europe, India- Assam, Jharkhand, Odisha

Conclusion– Assam Witch Hunting Act in 2018

Sorcery

Acc to Evan Pitenara – Sorcery is magic intended to case harm. It is Pragmatic, Conscious practice, involving act of magic performance and depending on personal acquired power of practitioner.

Ex. according to Evan Piternar by Uttering od spells, manipulation of herbs, rituals
Must leam text, practice, rituals → such knowledge is esoteric (to be understood by small people only) and not normally available to anyone.
work on behalf of client

Features of Sorcerer

Male or female
Acquired powers
Ambivalent use
For being sorcer, one must have suffered & survived critical illness in past → shows his power
While witchcraft commoners, Sorcery → Nobility

Studies on Sorcery

Bruce Kapferer in his “The feast of sorcerer : Practices of consciousness and Power “ (1997)
- studied sorcery among Sinhalesese Buddhist
- Pointed out how sorcery is intervined with other social aspects.
Evan pitchard → Azande distincted b/w w &
- called sorcery as ‘magic intended to cause harm”
- Give Logical explanation for misfortunes
Rea fortune in his “sorcerers of Doby’ (1952)on study of Dobu of W. Pacific.
- There witchcraft Is Proregative of ♀& sorcerer if prerogative of ♂
- In witchcraft – does all working in spirit form when her body sleeps where as , Sorcerer use spells on personal leaving of victim to cause harm
- Thus ♂ & ♀ fear each other & see with suspicion.
Malinowski in trabrianders,
- shown that sorcery is not always harmfull.
- for tribrianders sorcery – both criminal practice & form of punishment
- Thus sorcery both as deviance & way to control deviance.
- later pointed out by Mcpherson in study of kabaha of PNG.
Kluckhohn– Navaho- channel to project fear and emotion
Marwick– Chew of Zambia- breaking off redundant relations

Sorcery example

Lattas (1993) → found that in PNG the Sorcery found political context
- incorporated in european symbols, offices, & commodities
- People learned & practice sorcery skills on plantations

Difference b/w Witchcraft & Sorcery

The most commonly accepted definition was provided in Evans-Pritchard 1937, a detailed, empathetic study of the Azande (Witchcraft Oracles and Magic among the Azande) in which the author distinguishes b/t witchcraft & sorcery by their technique.
Stephen 1987 suggests that Melanesian societies construct an alternative contrast.
- The author describes sorcerers as dominant persons who deliberately use rituals to impose their will and mediate cosmic power both for constructive and destructive purposes. Political leaders often possess a monopoly of sorcery skills.
- By contrast, Stephen characterizes witches as socially unimportant persons who harbor totally destructive powers and carry blame for misfortune and death. Their powers cannot be controlled. They are accused, denounced, and punished.
British anthropologists in Africa- source of term “witch doctors” : separate social group who repair witches’ damage
Repo Fortune in his “Socerers of Dohu” also talk about sorcery

Feature	Witchcraft	Sorcery
Definition	EP : Innate inherent ability to cause misfortune or death	EP : Conscious use of magic to cause harm
Motive	• Mostly ill motives • later, Kroeber point point out that can be for good motive	Bad motives
Gender	Generally Woman	Generally man
Ability	Person should have inherent mystical powers	person should learn to perform rituals
Form of practice	• Covens (Group of witches) • Individual	• Group • Individual
Ritual & Spells	Both follows	both follows
Need of Training	No need as it is hereditary psychological power	need as it it ritualistic & acquired power
Requirement	witch poses some physical stigma	Sorcery must have survived some life threatening disease.

Witch Hunting

Suspected sorcerers & witches are usually feared b/c they are thought to know how to invoke the supernatural to cause illness, injury and death.

B/c sorcerers use material for their magic, evidence of sorcery can be found and suspected sorcerers are often killed for their malevolent magical activities.
B/c witchcraft is supposedly accomplished by thought and emotion alone, it may be harder to prove that someone is a witch.

The difficulty in proving witchcraft, however, has not prevented people from accusing and killing others being witches – a common phenomenon is Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh.

In this context, it is necessary to distinguish between magic, witchcraft and sorcery

Mission Birubala :

Ms. Birubala Rabha has been campaigning against witch – hunting since 1996.

Project Prahari, 2001

by DGP Kuladhar Saikiawas aimed at fighting witch-hunting by uplifting the socio-economical status of the people.
The programme blended normal policing with social campaigns to check the menace.
The model has resulted in the formation of a coalition of different stakeholders in like women’s groups, student bodies, science clubs and development and law enforcement agencies.
Under Prahari, regular health camps are organised. Through qualified experts, villagers knowledge about health and hygiene and local women are being trained.

Conclusion– Assam Witch Hunting (Prohibition, Prevention & Protection) Act in 2018 – makes every offence under Act cognizable, Non-bailable & Non compoundable

Taboo in Anthropology

Origin of the word Taboo: The word taboo is derived from oceanic word “Tabu” or “Tapu’ meaning prohibition.

Definition: These are certain specific types of prohibitions violation of which is believed automatically or by supernatural means to produce undesirable consequences like illness, death, drought & disaster, economic failure etc.

Demographic spread:

Prior to 1886 taboo was considered to be a practice restricted to Polynesia only.
Frazer pointed out that such system of superstitions is prevalent all over the world under different names.

Characteristics

Taboo as ritual prohibition: Negative compulsions of culture.
Taboo as part of belief system: Due to association of the fear of supernatural.
Taboo as a tool of social control: Acts prohibited by taboo are anti-social such as theft, adultery, homicide etc. Belief in taboo discourages these acts. Thus it acts as mechanism for social control & reinforces social values.
Radcliffe Brown studied ritual status and ritual values in connection with taboo. Ritual don’ts are taboo and infarction of ritual don’ts is undesirable.

Types of Taboo

Food Taboo – totemic beliefs.
Sex taboo – incest taboo, lactation period, magic and religious performance.
Ritual taboo – Toda dairies.
Protective taboo – Chiefs, Kings, new born, dead body.

Desacralization: It is the process/rites done for relief from taboo. Rites of purification are performed to depollute the person who breached the taboo. After desacralization the person becomes Nao from Tabu.

Conclusion : Taboo is widely spread among primitive societies observed by all members without exception. It acts as very important means of social control. However various different types of taboos in different societies does not warrant one single explanation for the phenomenon.

Religion is Cultural Institution. Justify

From above definition, it is clear that Durkheim sees Religion in social context i.e the way society orders it’s life. Thus Durkheim believes that all objects in Religion symbolises social relationships and lead to continuity in social group. Thus making Religion a cultural institution. Though it people seek the justification of existing social order.

Social Role of Religion

Though highly personal, but Religion does play following social roles:

Explains individual sufferings– As proposed by Malinowski, purpose of Religion is to purge human mind out of state of stress & strain.
Source of social cohesion– Maintenance of social order & social integration
- Believing Religion to be Ultimate source of social cohesion, Raymond Firth proposes that it is impossible for human society to exist without some kind of religious solution that go beyond empirical evidences.
- on the same line, Radcliffe Brown explains function of Religion in two ways:
  - creating feeling of dependence on human mind.
  - thereby attaining concurrence of individual on social norms.
- All this with ultimate aim of social Continuity and social survival.
Agency of social control – Religion emphasises on consequences resulting from behaviour. It approves and disapproves certain human practices thr concept of reward & punishment and responsible for directing discipline and dictating human behaviour.
- It provides model for living
- Durkheim: creation of “intense feeling”.

Controls Economic life – Max weber studied economic role of Religion. He propounded that capitalism grew in protestant nations like USA not in Catholic nations like Italy.
- Also, due to spiritualism, materialism could not grow in India.
Religion and social welfare – growth of art & culture, spread of education. Religious scriptures as store houses of knowledge
Inextricability religion & society – Durkheim: Religious Sacred is not only social, but it is very form in which Society represent itself to it’s members.
- Religious ideas are expressed thr social institutions, values, customs, lifestyle etc
- These things are also legitimised thr religion
- Change in religion leads to social change & vice verse.

Criticism

Talcott Parsons, an American Sociologist, argues that religion no longer functions to promote social integration as Durkheim Proposed, b/c of individualist nature of Contemperory societies.

Conclusion – Thus, due to variety of social functions performed by it, the Religion, as Durkheim proposed, is result of social Consciousness and thus a cultural institution.

Functions of Religion & Magic in Primitive Societies

Brown advocates that magic & religion do have complementary co-existence in primitive society and they have multiple functions attributed to them.

Both perform various psychological, emotional , cultural & social functions. It can be understood in relation to fertility of soil, birth and death, harvest, diseases and sickness. Religion & Magic is foundation of primitive society and has multi-functional role to play. Some are following

Inextricability religion & society – Durkheim: Religious Sacred is not only social, but it is very form in which Society represent itself to it’s members.
- Religious ideas are expressed thr social institutions, values, customs, lifestyle etc
- These things are also legitimised thr religion
- Change in religion leads to social change & vice verse.
Psychological function: Religion primarily teaches people’s how to address the uncontrollable situation in a controlled manner, how to reduce apprehensions, tensions and anxiety from man’s mind and for that religion and magic go hand in hand.
Maintenance of social order and social integration.
Religion takes out contradictions from day to day life of man.
Emotional Integration – It provides man a sense of promise, a logical understanding for his survival and ante continuity
Eliminates tension and anxiety from man’s mind to let him function effectively.
Social Control : Religion is a form of social necessity as it explains what are the prescriptions and how they are distinguished from prohibition.
It defines ethics and morality.
Primitive societies perform various rites and rituals such as initiation right, territorial right, rights pertaining to marriage, birth and funeral are intended to please spirits of various orders.
Both religion and magic address to emotional state of man’s mind.

Observation & Studies

To find people’s Attitude towards religion study By Wilson in Early 1980s
- In USA 90-95% believe in God & in U.K 85-90%
- This explanation follows that even in most advanced countries like UK & USA, people still believe in religion b/c it explains some questions which are beyond explanation of science
Raymond Firth in his study of Tikopia – advocates that how fear of mystical power compels people to admit their guilt & fear of god make people offer periodic offerings & how the problem like fertility of soil, warfare, internal conflict are analysed in terms of spirits of different order.
Brown advocates that magic & religion do have complementary co-existence in primitive society and they have multiple functions attributed to them.
- Citing the ex of Andamanese, he explains how storm gives a spontaneous reaction in the minds of people and for that they appeal to the spirit of the sea first (religion). When they fail at this front (religion), they consider storm as the handiworks of evil spirits and they carry burning sticks (magical object) to get rid of the evil spirit.

Conclusion : In conclusion, it can be said that both religion and magic are tools of adaptation to uncertainty and risks of life. R. Brown has advocated that “People can live without a state but they can’t live without magico-religious forces.”

Approaches To Study Religion

Monotheism & Polytheism

Sacred & Profane

Criticism of Sacred & Profane

Sacred & Profane Since Durkheim

Myth & Ritual

Myth

Ritual

Relation B/w Myth and Ritual

Form of Religion in Tribal & Peasant Societies

Animism

Animatism (Manaism, Bongaism)

Fetishism

Naturalism

Totemism

Magic

Magic & Religion

Magic & Science

Religion & Science

Religious Functionaries

Shaman

Priest

Witchcraft

Sorcery

Difference b/w Witchcraft & Sorcery

Witch Hunting

Taboo in Anthropology

Religion is Cultural Institution. Justify

Functions of Religion & Magic in Primitive Societies

Observing The Mortals

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