Nature of Language
Language is a system that consists of the development, acquisition, maintenance and use of complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so.
- The scientific study of language is called linguistics.
Acc to Foremost Linguistic Noam Chomsky -The greatest tech breakthrough of Human being -Language
- invented 2 MYA by Homo errectus (not true)
There are three theoretical positions about the nature of language,
- The structural view
- It sees language as a system of structurally related elements for the transmission of the meaning.
- These elements are usually described as
- phonological units (phonemes),
- grammatical units (phrases, clauses and sentences)
- grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming elements) and
- lexical elements (function words and structure words).
- This is a pure linguistic treatment of language that constitutes understanding the various structural aspects of language.
- The target of language learning, under the structural perspective is the mastery of elements of the language system.
- The communicative view
- It says that language is vehicle for the expression of functional meaning.
- more emphasis on the semantic & communicative dimensions of language
- than the grammatical or structural characteristics,
- although they are included in the study.
- Areas of research under this perspective include areas such as sociolinguistics, semantics and pragmatics.
- The objective of language study is to learn the expressive communication function and categories of meaning.
- The interactional view
- sees language primarily as the means for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for performing social transactions b/w individuals.
- Areas of research in this context includeinteractional analysis, conversational analysis etc.
- The object of learning in this area of research is to understand how people initiate & maintain conversations with each other.
Origin of Language
Major Theories about origin of language fall in to major categories – Biological & cultural
Cultural theories
- Divine creation hypothesis → i.e gift of god to human. Adam gave name to all living creature.
- Lang & human societies are inseparable.
- Imitation hypothesis.
- Ding Dong hypothesis– named objected after recognized sound associated with it. e.g-boom – for explosion, crash – word for thunder
- Only limited part of vocabulary comprised of it.
- The Pooh pooh hypothesis– first word came involuntary from exclamation of like, dislike, anger, pain or pleasure eg- ouch for pain / discomfort
- They are very sort part of language
- Bow-wow Hypothesis -vocabulary developed from animal noises such as maa, bark, hiss, meow etc
- The Tata hypothesis (gestural Hypothesis)– Organs of speech were used to imitate gesture of hand. Lang developed from gestures.
- Gestures differ from culture to culture
- Creol Language hypothesis- similarities b/w grammars of creol lang thr-out world
- Ding Dong hypothesis– named objected after recognized sound associated with it. e.g-boom – for explosion, crash – word for thunder
- Necessary hypothesis
- Warning hypothesis – warning signals to alert tribe members when beast is Approaching.
- Ye-he-ho hypothesis – human cooperative effort → includes chanting to stimulate collective efforts while moving great stones to block entrance of cave. Necessity is mother of invention.
- Lying hypothesis – voluntary communication must have invented for purpose of lying or deceiving, as real emotions are involuntarily expressed.
- Memetic Evolution of Language :
- According to memetic theorist Susan Blackmore, language developed as a result of memetic evolution. Using memetic reasoning it can be seen that language itself is created by memes and for memes, language is a principle medium used for spreading memes from one person to another.
Biological
- Natural Evolution Hypothesis – in evolutionary development, human acquired more sophisticated brain which made lang invention & learning possible.
- As soon as 옷 developed the biological & neurological capacity for creative lang, the cultural dev. Of some specific system of forms with meaning would have been inevitable next step
- e.g Noam Chomsky ‘s innate lang acquisition device theory.
- Bio linguistic theory of Noam chomsky
- Humans have innate structure which enables them to acquire language.
- Language Acquisition Device theory.
- Humans have innate structure which enables them to acquire language.
- Broca’s & wemicke’s area
- both in left hemisphere of brain.
- Brocca → associated with production of Sound and grammatical abilities.
- Wemicke → associated with semantics i.e. understanding meanings
- both in left hemisphere of brain.
- Fox P2 gene
- Recently discovered which govers human biological linguistics capabilities
- thus proves that during course of evolution → biological capacity evolved to create language.
Characteristics of Language
Many westem Philosophers like Plato & Rene Descartes Identified speech & lang as major distinction b/w human and animal. Modem studies, however suggest that lang gap separating human & animal is not so wide.
Thus to differentiate human lang from animal communication, linguistic anthropologist offered following distinctive features:
- Productivity – ability to create new messages by Combining already existing signs
- Arbitrariness– diff. interpretations in diff Context & Society
- Dynamic changing constantly in words & meaning
- symbolic
- Dialect – subject to regional variation
- Sociolect – social variation wrt to social class, occupational class etc
- Idolect – individual variation, variation in voice, clarity, pitch, speech, rhythm etc
- Systemic – Phenological unity
- phonological units (phonemes),
- grammatical units (phrases, clauses and sentences)
- grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming elements) and
- lexical elements (function words and structure words).
- Vocal & Auditory Channel – spoken lang is product in the vocal tract & transmitted as sounds whereas sign lang is produced with hands & transmitted by light.
Verbal & Non Verbal Communication
Communication is transfer of meaning from One mind to other.
Verbal Communication
- verbal communication is communication based on language
- Human language is code of symbols c/l words which are understood in cultural Contex.
Verbal Communication includes
- Phenology – study of phenomes i.e. basic sound structure of lang
- deals with human vocalization of sounds.
- Morphology – study of morphemes i.e basic unit of meaning within lang
- deals with how sound combines to form words
- Syntax – focuses on form of Iang, it’s rules and patters
- involves rules of grammar → how gigns relate to other signs.
Types of Vocal Communication
- Vocal → spoken language
- Non vocal → written communication or other signs like Braille
Acc to L.H. Morgan → Man developed writing in neolithic then they included in verbal.
Role of language in verbal communication
- Descriptive function – describing things of knowledge.
- Expressive function – express satisfaction, excitement, sorrow, pain, etc.
- Social function – expressing wishes, thanks, goodbye, etc.
However, Noam chomsky talks about his universal grammar’ which suggest that grammar is not always required to carry out communication. This show there exist certain innate structure in human mind that lets us to communicate.
Non-Verbal Communication
Introduction – As we all know from our experiences that spoken words do not communicate all that we know about a social situation. Our communication is not limited to spoken language. → importance
Definition : Non-verbal communication is usually understood as the process of communication thr sending and receiving wordless messages. It can occur through any sensory channel – sight, sound, smell, taste.
Types of non-verbal communication
- Clothing & bodily characteristics – physique, hair, height, skin color, weight, odor, genders
- Physical environment such as proximity or distance while communicating.
- Movement & body positions – kinesics, posture, gesture, heptic, eye gaze
- Paralanguage -voice set, voice qualities, vocalization
- Signs, symbols such as writings, algebric equations etc.
Role of Nonverbal Communications – Acc to Edward G. Wertheim in his “The imp of effective communication”
- Repetition: It repeats & often strengthens the message you’re making verbally.
- Contradiction: It can contradict the message you’re trying to convey, thus indicating to your listener that you may not be telling the truth.
- Substitution: It can substitute for a verbal message.
- For ex, your facial expression often conveys a far more vivid message than words ever can.
- Complementing: It may add to or complement your verbal message.
- As a boss, if you pat an employee on the back in addition to giving praise, it can increase the impact of your message.
- Accenting: It may accent or underline a verbal message.
- Pounding the table, for ex, can underline the importance of your message.
Examples
- Silence is an example of non-verbal communication which reflects bothcompanionship and unfriendliness.
Universal non verbal communication : Some non verbal communications appear to be universal through out world such as facial expression for happiness, fear, anger etc.
Cultural variability in non verbal communication:
- Many gestures are culturally variable such as in some societies an up and down nod of head means ‘yes’, in others it means ‘no’.
- Such variations may cause misunderstandings.
Kinesics– It is study of communication by non-verbal means:
Conclusion : To conclude we can say that non-verbal communication is equally important mean of communication which has wide cultural significance.
Social Context of Language
Language, Acc to Notes & Quarries, is system of symbols with standard meaning thr which members of society Communicate with one another. Acc to finding of PrimatologistJames Goodall, lang in human exist in cultural context & is transmitted culturally that it is learned.
- language can only by developed in social setting & human society could be maintained only among the people speaking & understanding the common lang.
Sociolinguistics – Study of effects of any & all aspects of society including cultural norms, expectations & context on the way language is used.
- Acc to ethnicity, gender, level of edu, age etc lang differs.
- Dialect – place to place variation.
- Sociolect – Variation among social classes.
Language in social context
- Discussion of lang in social context is focused on lang acquisition, Iang learning & it’s Significance in community.
- Thus, it is study of interrelation between:
Human being & language
- Man, being social animal, is always in Cooperation with other members of society.
- Thus he requires medium of Communication & interaction which is provided by language.
- Thus, language is not just means of Communication, but also mean of creating and maintaining relationship among speakers of Iang (speech Community)
- Sapir -Whorf Hypothesis Aka Linguistic Relativism
- Claims that structure of lang affects it’s speakersworldview or cognition, thus people perception are relative to their spoken language.
- Thus certain thoughts of individual in one lang can’t Be understood by those live in another lang.
- Criticised by Noam Chomsky – In his theory of “Biolinguistics” all human share same underlying structure, irrespective of socio-cultural differences.
- Claims that structure of lang affects it’s speakersworldview or cognition, thus people perception are relative to their spoken language.
- Saville – Troike(2012) in his theory of Second Lang Learning → emphasised on mental & Cognitive aspects of member of speech community in Social context
- Thus emphasised interrelation b/w speech, sex, age & other mental aspects of speakers.
- Jane Goodall – Primate behavioural specialist says : Language is specially a characteristic of human being. Chimpanzee can have ways of commutation, but can’t transmit it to next generation.
- Thus lang in human exists in Cultural context
Language & Society
- Ronald Wardhaugh (1986)summarised relationship b/w Lang & society as
- Social Structure – May either influence or determine linguistic structure & behaviour
- Linguistic Structure – May either influence or determine social structure & behaviour
- Dialectical Relation – influence each other
- Thus acc to him, speech behaviour & social behaviour are in constant interaction with one another.
- Lang & Physical Environment
- Physical i.e visible env in a society is reflected in it’s lang, generally in structure of it’s lexicon
- Lang & Social Environment
- Social Env have effect on Lang & is reflected in it’s vocabulary
- Ex – Kinship System & Kin proximity is reflected in kinship terminology e.g Maasi = Maa + Jaasi
- Malinowski’s Theory of Pragmasemantics & Ethnolinguistics : focuses that meaning of word lies in situational context. Ex – In his study of Trobrianders
- He observed that islanders believed in Power of Words in their magic formula.
- He observed that islanders believed in Power of Words in their magic formula.
Thus, based on geographical area, the community may have variety of dialects known as geographical original dialects. Consequently, members of same speech community may use diff. Dialects k/n as Social Dialects.
Relationship between Language And Culture
The structure & content of language are influenced by culture
Introduction: Both the phenomena are unique to human being & are many ways in which both are intimately related. Have therefore been subject of great deal of anthropological, sociological and memetic study.
Language as determined by culture
- Following the theory that words determined thoughts, early anthropologists believed that language and its structure were entirely dependent on cultural context. This was a logical extension of what is termed as “Standard Social Science Model‘ which views human mind as indefinite malleable structure capable of absorbing any sort of culture without constraints from genetic or neurological factors.
- The colour relativity hypothesis :
- Ⓐ Verne Ray conducted study in 1950s giving colour samples to different American Indian tribes and asking them the names of the colour. According to the hypothesis, the divisions seen b/w the colours are consequence of language we learned and don not correspond to divisions in the natural world.
- However the colour relativity hypothesis has now been completely revamped by more careful thoughts and systematic studies which show that there are remarkable similarities b/w ways in which different cultures divide the colour spectrum.
- Our culture does sometimes restrict what we can think about efficiently in our own language.
- For ex, only 3 colour terms equivalent to black, white and red. A native speaker of this language could have a difficult time with expressing the concept of purple.
Culture and language united by Meme:
- Meme: It is an idea, behaviour or style that spreads from person to person culture.
- acts as unit for carrying cultural ideas, symbols, practices etc. which can be transmitted from one mind to another through writings, speech, gestures, rituals within a or other imitable phenomena.
- According to memetic theorist Susan Blackmore, language developed as a result of memetic evolution. Using memetic reasoning it can be seen that language itself is created by memes and for memes, language is a principle medium used for spreading memes from one person to another.
Language as a part of culture :
- For many people, language is not just the medium of culture but also a part of culture.
- It is quite common for an immigrant to a new country to retain their own culture and their first language amid fellow immigrants even if all present are comfortable in their new language.
Conclusion : Language is part and parcel of culture and both are part of the same coin.
Emic & Etic Theme in Anthropology
Because of cross cultural nature of so much of anthropological research, anthropologists have been confronted with the problem of translating the cultural world of their subjects into the idiom of western knowledge.
The problem of translation occurs at both ends of one’s research
- Learning about the people one is investigating
- And then communicating what one has learned about these people to one’s professional colleagues.
Struggling with these difficulties has sensitized anthropologists to the problem of keeping perspectives and world views separate.
- Emic: The perspective of the people being investigated is called Emic approach/ emic.
- Etic: Whereas the perspective of the western social science in general and anthropology in particular is called as etic approach/ etic.
Keeping these perspectives separate is very difficult as it is quite easy to see what one expects to see, to interpret in terms of one’s preconceptions.
The researchers must be very careful how they go about trying to comprehend the worlds of their subjects- be these foreign groups, prehistoric populations or living primates.
It is crucial that they do not confuse their own perspectives and assumptions with those of their subjects i.e. they should keep emic and etic separate at all stages of research and analysis.
Memetics
Is study of information & culture based on analogy with Darwinian Evolution. Proponents describe it as approach to evolutionary models of cultural information transfer.
- Meme: self replicating unit culture.
- It is an idea, behaviour or style that spreads from person to person culture.
- acts as unit for carrying cultural ideas, symbols, practices etc. which can be transmitted from one mind to another through writings, speech, gestures, rituals within a or other imitable phenomena.
- the term meme was coined by Richard Dawkins in 1976 book The selfish Gene
- According to memetic theorist Susan Blackmore, language developed as a result of memetic evolution. Using memetic reasoning it can be seen that language itself is created by memes and for memes, language is a principle medium used for spreading memes from one person to another.