Species

An interbreeding population which is reproductively isolated from other morphologically distinguishable groups.

Deme (Small Population)

A smallest population unit which is a group of genetically similar individuals bearing an intimate spatial & temporal relation.

Quick Recap of basis of Racial Classification

• Morphological Bases
  1. Morphoscopic / Somatoscopic
     1. Skin Color
     2. Hair Color, Texture & Form
     3. Body Build
     4. Eye Shape & Color
  2. Morphometric / Anthropometric
     1. Cephalic Index & Cranial Index
     2. Facial Index
     3. Nasal Index
• Genetic Criteria of Races
  1. Serological
     1. Blood Groups
     2. The Histocompatibility (HL-A) System
     3. Haemoglobin
     4. Isoenzyme & G6PD
     5. Serum Protein
     6. Immunoglobins
  2. Non-Serological
     1. Secretor Status
     2. Tasting Ability
  3. DNA Variation / Human Chromosome & DNA Polymorphism
     1. Chromosomal Variation
     2. Variation in DNA

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Concept of Race: What is Race ?

Introduction – Race may be defined as group of population that share a common gene pool & is differentiated from other groups in gene-frequencies.

An aggregate of local populations (Demes) of a species inhabiting a geographical sub division, differing taxonomically from other populations of same species.

Dobzhansky defined race as a group of population which are reproductively isolated to the extent that the exchange of genes between them is absent or so slow that the genetic differences are not diminished or swamped.

This definition of race underlines following ingredients for a group to be called races

1. Group of Population – Race is higher in hierarchy than population & consists of many populations that have gene frequencies (All population have their own genepool with differing gene frequencies) related to one another.
2. Genetic Differences – Genetic Differences (Some gene in high fre. or some in low) characterize a race which rise partly as a result of natural selection & partly as a result of chance.
3. Reproductively Isolated – This help in the maintains of the genetic differences b/w races. However it is not complete, whenever races expand their range & come into contact of other races, they potentially hybridize & now gene frequency is set up.
4. Biological Concept – There is no race except biological races. Such races are identified b/w of differing gene frequencies resulting from isolation, hybridization, selection, small mutations & chance.

Other Features of Race

• Race differ from species in two ways
  • Absence of complete reproductive isolation
  • Smaller amount of genetic differences

     Hence different, races in man are different subspecies & not species.

• differences in races are the differences in the environmental adaptation
• Intelligence don’t play any part in the classification of races
• Cultural differences are not the cause of racial differences.
• The so called pure race is nowhere found. There has been intermingling of the races going on since time immemorial without adverse effect. 

Types of Race

based on Race Formation

• Primary Race
  • Modified only by the operation of evolutionary factor.
  • These have been differentiated by early geographic & genetic isolation by loss of some & fixation of others.
• Secondary Race or Composite Race
  • These have combination of morphological & metric features affected by long continuous interbreeding to two or more primary races within an area of relative isolation.
  • eg. Australoid or Archaic Caucasoid

Based on Morphological & Genetic Difference

• Negroid
• Mongoloid
• Caucasoid

Racial Criteria / Biological basis of Racial Classification

• Morphological
  • Non Metric / Morphoscopic – skin colour, texture & form, eye colour & shape etc
  • Metric / Morphometric – facial Index, cephalic index, nasal index, stature index etc
• Genetic – Blood group, chromosomal variation, Hb etc

Formation of Race

Introduction – Ashley Montagu has defined race as a group or community that differs from others with respect to certain gene frequencies.

Thus, race formation requires change in gene frequencies, which themselves change through micro-evolution.

Micro-evolutionary Processes

1. Variation – Arises due to continuation of process of evolution, adaptation to local env conditions etc
2. Gene Mutation – Refers to sudden random change in the nature of single gene.
3. Change in Chromosome Number
4. Genetic Recombination– refers to change in sequence of the genes on chromosomes without change in the number of chromosomes
5. Inbreeding – Refers to mating within a Mendelian population ; inbreeding leads to concentration of mutation & variation
6. Natural Selection – it is the process that results in adaptation of an organism to its environment by selective reproduction of its genotype. 

Race Formation

• Variations due to the continuation of the process of evolution (& Gene mutation )
• Variations due to adaptation to local environmental conditions
• Variations get concentrated in groups occupying a specific geography which are inter breeding
• The group will constitute specific genotypes & phenotypes & a race is born
• A race constitutes a subspecies.

Factors in Race Formation (can be ignored if question is short)

• Climate
  • Bergman’s Rule – People living in warm areas have greater body bulk than those living in cold areas
  • Allen’s Rule – People living in cold areas have small appendages
  • Glogger’s Rule – People living in hot & damp places tend to have very dark skins
• Nutrition
  • Differences in nutrition habits & status produce physical differences in the long run
  • Migration leads to introduction of new foods
  • Nutrition in turn is influenced by Climate & Culture
  • Too much of dependence on one staple crop leads to certain vitamin deficiencies
  • These deficiencies in turn may act as selective forces within a population
  • All these deficiency diseases eliminate large no. of populations, esp. the children & the avg. body size becomes small
  • In non lethal cases, there is a delayed growth & permanent stunting
  • In cold, areas, there is little or no agriculture & the chronic deficiencies leads to stunted growth
• Genetic
  • environment is capable of producing genetic effects that become hereditary Ex – Mutations caused by UV Radiation
  • Certain peculiar mutations that are favored by natural selection might become hereditary & thus race specific
  • Both heredity & env. complement each other in formation of races.
• Culture
  • Socio economic factors influence genetic character that may become race specific in the long run
  • Endogamy
  • Preferential Marriages
  • Clan Affiliations
  • Caste

These factors influence development & heredity retention of certain genetic characteristics

Types of Race based on Race Formation

• Primary Race
  • Modified only by the operation of evolutionary factor.
  • These have been differentiated by early geographic & genetic isolation by loss of some & fixation of others.
• Secondary Race or Composite Race
  • These have combination of morphological & metric features affected by long continuous interbreeding to two or more primary races within an area of relative isolation.
  • eg. Australoid or Archaic Caucasoid

The expression of Environment is understood in terms of micro-evolution). As all of these micro- evolutionary  process are environmental factors only. Hence these environmental factors interact with heredity, resulting in race formation.

Case Studies

• Lewontin (1971) studied races by dividing human population into seven geographical zones. He concluded that only 15% of variations can be attributed to racial differences. He concluded that only 15% variation can be attributed to racial differences. The remaining 18% are due to differences b/w human to human, family to family, region to region etc.
• In Feb 2011, the first report of Human Genome Project reported that all humans are genetically similar by 99.99%. Genetic variation of 0.01% is not enough for creating racial categories.

The function of heredity is to pass traits to the subsequent generation in the purest form. If is was to only continue like this, there will be no change in gene frequencies & hence no race formation. But environment is dynamic & keeps changing. Whenever environment change, heredity has to change itself to suit to the change in environment. E.g Sickle cell traits (HbA/HbS) is most common in regions (environment) with history of malaria like sub-Saharan populations.

Controversies

• No agreement on how many genetic differences it takes to make a race & hence the definition of race is Arbitrary
• No one race has an exclusive possession of one gene b/c races are open
• Race is defined as geographically associated group which make this definition REDUNDANT in today’s context
• Race is defined as taxonomically & phenotypically defined groups adapted to local environment – But doubts exist about the relationship b/w heredity & environment
• Recent developments in anthropology about the personality & IQ – devastating conclusions – led to withholding of data – Racial concept hence is Inconclusive.
• Race manifests as a cultural concept also – Racism

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Race & Racism

Introduction – Race is Mendelian population that differs from others such population in certain gene frequencies. Racism on the other hand refers to a belief of superiority & purity of one culture over the others.

Racism

• Acc, to Exponents of racism race is determined by only hereditary characters, races are high & low in birth, hereditary factors regulate every aspect of cultural life.
• Wrong & unscientific thinking of race gives birth to several social injustices & many tyrannical activities & strengthens the feeling of high & low among several races. This has come to be known as racism
• Thus racism is a bitter thinking which gives birth to the feeling of high & low among races.
• Ex –In many societies, racist beliefs was need for political suppression of minority groups e.g Nazi Racists Ideology.

Differences

• As Per Franz Boas, Race is biological concept & it is valid concept whereas Racism is a culturally determined concept which is a disintegrative factor for the human society.
• Bases of Formation
  • Bases of Race
    • Morphological e.g – Head size, Nose
    • Genetic e.g Blood group
  • Bases of Racism
    • Purity & Impurity of Blood
      • Blood group vary independently of races
      • Underlining Hb structure is same in all races ; diff due to environmental selection
    • Fine Skin Colour – exposed to see → prejudices
      • Cause of change in skin color are different climatic conditions( Tropical : Dark, Temperate : Light) geographical isolation leading to chance mutation
      • Great variability in skin colour of same race ; different races have similar colour too
    • Superior Mental & Physical Ability
      • Size of brain & body differ b/w races as they differ within the race. → character combination of gene & env – Not only biological factors
      • Frontal lobe which is seat of intelligence forms 44% part of total brain weight. This proportion is constant throughout races.
      • Intelligence involve both genetic & environment component
    • Cultural Superiority
      • Monozygous twin reared apart differ in mental ability.
      • It can be proved that human civilization ; culture or scientific achievement is not the monopoly of any particular race but in fact a collective achievement of all.
      • Frequency of gene in population is determined by certain adoptive & chance factors & not due to any one of them

In case of all the bases of racism; the differences are as vivid b/w two races as they are within the races. Thus races are populations characterized by certain frequency of gene.

• Race is result of human curiosity but racism got boost due to colonial powers & their desire to prove themselves as the superiors race
• Race was intended to understand & classify human differences, while racism was intended to discriminate b/w people.

Racism causes bloodshed & society is disintegrated as a result of this. UNESCO has adopted a universal Declaration in order to combat racism through the World & by creating awareness about race so that racial arrogance can be checked.

UNESCO Declaration (1951)

UNESCO statement on Races (1951),  primarily authored by Ashley Montagu,

1. All human beings  belong to only one species which is Home sapiens sapiens.
2. Differences exist b/c of heredity & environment
3. The change in hereditary trait is becasue of mutation & cross marriage
4. The race can’t be grouped on the basis of nationality, religion, geographical, cultural & linguistical factors
5. The present day classification is based on anatomical difference not it gives rise to any notion of superiority or inferiority
6. Intellignece do’t pay any part in the classification of races
7. Culture differences are not the casue of Racial differences these days not they were found in the distnct past. There have been intermingling of races going on since time immemorail without any adverse effect
8. Pure races don’t exist
9. The human beings are equal & they deserve equal treatment

It’s three main conclusions are

1. Prue races don’t exist among humans
2. Races don’t differ significantly wrt to their capacities & capabilities
3. There are no harmful effects of interracial studies.

Ashley Montagu also authored a book, “Man’s most Dangerous Math (1942) –

• The tittle is a reference to racism, whereby Montagu once & for all busted the myth of racism.

Conclusion – Thus, the concept of racial superiority was scientifically disproven. There is no divine or spiritual specialty to any races. The use of the term has in fact done incalculable harm to the cause of world peace, in the imagination of world brotherhood. Huxley & Haddon rightly approved that the term Racisms is quite unfit to be used in the present day world. The population previously called as races are today termed as ethnic groups or Mendelian population.

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Racial Criteria

Introduction – Race as per the pre-Mendelian concept, is an ethnic group that differs from all others in terms of certain physical features. Genetically, race is a Mendelian population that differs from other wrt to certain gene frequencies.

Racial Criteria – are the attributes according to which the human beings are divided into different races such as Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid.

Now many anthropologists consider race to be more a social or mental construct that an objective biological fact.Nonetheless the European scientists & physical anthropologists of the 17th & 18th centuries, based on above definition of race, proposed two types of racial criteria. 

Morpholgical

• Morphoscopic
• Morphometric

Morphoscopic / Nonmetric / Athroscopic – Feature which can’t be measured but can only be visually discriminated.

Character	Cucasoid	Negroid	Mongoloid
Skin Colour (Based on melanin conc & smaller vessels of dermis , state of hb oxygenation) – Polygenic & multiple allelic trait	Leucoderms (white Skinned) – Caucasoids	Melanoderms (dark skinned)	Xanthoderms (Yellow Skinned), also Aremenoid
Hair colour (d/t diff in melanin)  – red hair d/t to single pair of recessive genes ; no effect of env	Light blonde to dark brown	Brown black	Brown to brown black
Texture Variation (5-125 mircron )	Fine texture – 56 micron	Coarse texture – more than 84 micron –  & also  Chinese & Japanese among mongoloids	Medium texture – 57 to 84 micron
Eye shapeIn MongolidsOblique pap;ebral fissure – outer angle being higher than lower angleA narrow slitInner of complete epicanthic fold in various degree of development.Epicanthic fold is fold of skin hanging over the free edge of upper eye lid & is of four typesInner Epicanthic fold – at the inner edge of upper eye-lid, most pronounce din infants & womencomplete epicanthic fold – at the complete edge of upper eye lid.External epicanthic fold – at the outer edge of upper eye lid, Most pronounced at advanced age.Median epicanthic fold – at the middle part of edge upper eye lid. at advance age.
Eye colour d/t diff refractive indices of deposited pigment	Light blue to light brown	Dark brown to dark linear.	Light brown to dark brown
The dark eye colour rstricts the entry of light into the eye, to the pupil & help to protect retina against damaging UV radiations.People belonging to areas of great sunshine tend to have dark brown to brown black eyes.→Probably determined by several genes
Dermatoglyphics – study of ridge pattern ; permanent	Loops & Palmar main line formula – 11,9,7	Arches & Palmar main line formula – 7,5,5	Whirls & Palmar main line formula – 9,7,5
Body Build	Linear to lateral, Slender ot rugged	Lateral with traces of linear	More lateral than linear

Morphometric / Metric

Character	Cucasoid	Negroid	Mongoloid
Head Form Shape of head is largly genetic though env. has some role to play. & nutrition also influences shape of the head to some extentAnders Retzius noted the great deal of variation in the head form among different races & decided that the shape of the head was an imp criterion for classifying the people.The head form can be expressed in 3 indices Cephalic Index (C.I) = (breadth/lenght of the head) ✗ 100Dolichocephalic – C.I -less than 76 – Long or Narrow head – Negroids & CaucasoidsMesocephalic – C.I -76 to 81 – medium head – Mongoloid, Negroids & CaucasoidsBrachycephalic – C.I -more than 81 – broad head – Mongoloids & CaucasoidsLength – Height Index Breadth – Height Index
Types of Heads – Based on Cephalic Index	Dolichocephalic to brachycephalic	Predominately dolichoccephalic	predominantly brachyecephalic
Facial FormIt can be in harmonic or dishamonic conditon (e.g Aremenoids {narrrow face + broad cranium} Cromagnon+Eskimos {broad face+narrow cranium} ) with head.also affected by env , proved by experiment conducted on rats by Reisenfeld temp r/l effects are also evidentFacial index show sex based differences b/c females have shorter & broader faces.Faces are of different shapes – round, oval, square etcFacial  Index = (Length of the Face / Bizygomatic Breadth) ✗ 100
Types of Face – baed on facial Index	Euryprosopic – Broad & Short – <84	Leptoprosopic – Long & Narrow – >88	Mesoprosopic – <88
Nasal Form Seems adaptive features → People living in cold climates have higher, narrower noses, than warmer region due to absolute humidity associated with cold air. A relatively narrow nose may be more efficient humidifier & heater of cold air than a broad nose.broad nostril permits exit of greater quantity of warm air from lungs providing a cooling effect.Nasal Index = (Nasal Breadth / Nasal Length) ✗ 100 Nose form in India Narrow – Brahmans Broad in Lower castes & tribals Narrow & broad nasal bridges are found in primitive human groups.
Nose Form	leptorrhine to mesorrhine e.g Eskimos	Platyrrhine (broad) e.g Ituri pyhmies & African Negros	Mesorrhine (Medium)to platyrrhine e.g Melanesian & Austrialian aborigines
Nasal Profile	Have the highest bridge	depressed root with a broad bridge	much lower root & bridge than Negroid & narrow bridge
Stature index stature depends on local env (paratypical) & heredity (diatypical) factorsMartin scale of height is mostly followed to categories stature.Tall – Height more than 170cm eg. Caucasoids, Nilotic & Rajput of IndiaMedium – 160-170 cm height e.g Mediterranean & DravidiansShort – Height less than 160 cm eg. Andamanese, Negrillos, Bushmen of Kalahari

Genetic Criteria of Races

Serological

• ABO System
  • Karl Landsteiner in 1900 discovered ABO blood grouping.
  • ABO blood groups were earliest traits to be analyzed by pedigrees.
  • Frequency of Genes throughout world
    • O is the commonest blood group throughout world. 62% gene f in world wide avg.
      • American Indians exclusively possess O gene & almost negligible A & B
    • A blood group with 22 % frequency
      • I^A occurs in very high frequency in some regions of Europe & Asia & also among certain Australian tribes.
      • Most of the Caucasoid have prevalence of I^A gene
    • B blood group with 16 % frequency
      • I^B has highest frequency in Central Asia & North India.
      • I^B gene is absent in most of the Australian Tribes
    • It appears that frequency of B decreases that of A gene increases as one proceeds from the pacific coast to Asia to Atlantic coast of Europe.
• Rh Blood Group System – Rh -ve (rr) is rare or absent in most of the world. R_o is exclusively of African origin
• Hemoglobin Polymorphism
  • many polymorphisms of Hb such as HbS, HbC, HbE, HbA, HbJ, Hbpunjab, HbBompay, HbLolthansa etc
  • The HbS is well distributed in Africa b/c it provides resistance against malaria. It is also found in south India.
  • HbC is well distributd in Eastern Africa.
  • Hb E common in south east asia
  • HbD or HbPunjab is found in found in various parts of world. It is also found in Sikhs & Gujaratis.
• Other serological criteria are
  • HLA system
  • Isoenzyme & G6PD
  • Serum Proteins – Haptoglobins, transferrin, Serum Albumin
  • Immunoglobulins

Non-Serological

Character	Cucasoid	Negroid	Mongoloid
Secretory Status	High frequency of S	high frequency of S	In between
It has been noted that various body secretions viz. sweet, tear, semen etc, certain a substance called blood group like substance.Secretor gene(S) dominant over non secretor (s)perosn with SS or Ss -secretor & with ss non secretor
Tasting Ability – ability to taste  (PTC) – testing gene (T) dominant	High f of T is found in caucasoids	High f of t in Negroids	Mongoloids lying in between

Polygenetic Criteria – Most widely used criteria here is dermatolyphics

• Dermatoglyphics – it is based on study of dermal ridges on finger & palm. Human population can be classified into races by parameters like total ridge count, main line index & thenar ridge count etc

Character	Cucasoid	Negroid	Mongoloid
Dermatoglyphics – study of ridge pattern ; permanent	Loops & Palmar main line formula – 11,9,7	Arches & Palmar main line formula – 7,5,5	Whirls & Palmar main line formula – 9,7,5

Human Chromosome & DNA Polymorphism / DNA Variation

1. Chromosomal Variation – length of the Y chromosome
   • Long Y common among Japanese
   • Short in Australian Aborigines
2. Variation in DNA
   1. RFLPs
      • 6kb fragment is associated with sickle gene in kenya, Saudi Arabia & India
      • 13kb is associated with sickle gene in Ghana, Nigeria & around Mediterranean
      • In ivory coast & Sierra Leone both association are common
   2. VNTR – In hypervariable regions, there is essentially no homozygosity.Population are being compared on this basis.
   3. CA-repeat
3. Mitochondiral DNA – It occur as closed circles of about 16.5 Kb
   • Heterogeneity from individual to individual is detected by restriction endonucleases, the radioactive labeling of restriction fragments & separation by electrophoresis.

Advantage of Serological Criteria

• Easy to examine & possible to identify small qualitative differences
• Possible to identify end result on examination of genetic sequences
• No observer bias.

Comparison of Criteria – Acc to Robert Boyd (1948) criterion should fulfill the following conditions

1. It must be non-adaptive hence least influenced by environmental factors
2. It must be hereditary i.e genetic in origin & should be inherited in Mendelian pattern & its mode of inheritance should be known
3. Criteria should not subject to high rate of mutations.
4. It should be a discrete variable & not a continuous variable.
5. It must be objective without any bias of individual variations.

Morphological criteria don’t properly satisfy any of these conditions. Contrastingly Genetic criteria do. Their Mode of inheritance is well known (autosomal, sex linked, recessive or dominant). They do get affected by environment, but only due to mutation, which is a vary slow process. Finally, most are discrete variables.

Validity of Concept of Race wrt to Morphological Criteria – Because the somatoscopic / morphological & Morphometric criteria don’t fulfil the above critical conditions, it is not a vailed concept

Case study

• Anthropologists like R.C. lewontin adopted a multivariate approach in examining the distribution of certain physical traits including skin colour & hair texture. Comparing the distribution of these traits to common divisions of race, he noted that traits used to identify races do not accurately reflect human variation. Only 6% variation totally is among difference races whereas 94% variation of physical traits is found within each race. Thus it unnecessary to follow raciation as human groups.

Conclusion –

• However, when genetic criteria are used for classification, it is realised that it is not possible to divide human population into races b/c pure raced don’t exist among humans.
• Thus study of different racial criteria can help us understand the concept of race more elaborately which can help in abolition of myth of racism & promotion of world peace & prosperity.

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Racial Traits in Relation to Heredity & Environment

Introduction – People owe their differences to genetic & environmental factors & their interaction. The original roots of racial diversity is partly because, particular traits were produced to suit particular environmental conditions. Further when these traits are acted upon by natural selection & other process like mutation etc races are formed. All these process amount to gradual changes in allele frequencies in different line of descent.

Some categories of trait which are affected by both are broadly categorised as

1. Differences due to accidents e.g pregnancy complications
2. Differences due to adaptive responses
3. Difference due to cultural influence

Env acts n variety of ways to influence the racial traits. Some factors are

1. Climatic Factors
   • Prevalence of certain disease in certain climates – some time give selective advantage in such environment.
     • Ex presence of SCA in tropic ↠ heterozygous sickle gene → protection from malaria, thus people in tropics differ from temperate inhabitants
     • B/c capacity to resistance & survive with parasites is hereditary & selected by nature
   • Physiological adaptations for climatic regimes – functional advantage of certain body characters & their regional occurrence
     • the genetic selection of various bodily characters for life & diverse climate has been superimposed by physiological plasticity. Ex heat tolerance in Kalahari bushmen
     • Differences in average physique conform to Bergmans & Allen’s rule. Ex American negros have lesser skin fold thickness than white (subcutaneous fat)
     • Growth Pattern
       • Growth is prolonged & maturation delayed in warm periods which allows for greater height / unit.
       • In high altitude – growth is delayed -due to demand of chest (larger to ↑ chest capacity) & bone marrow (↑ production of RBC)
     • Shape of Nose – concerned with moistening of inspired air. Hence narrow nose is found both in hot & cold Deserts.
     • Facial features – e.g Mongoloid features adapted to life in extreme cold,
       • like ↓ in brow ridges & frontal sinuses, flattening & widening of orbital region to allow more fat & ↓ in nasal prominence
   • Twin studies – reveals that variation in body size, shape, fat, deposition are determined largely by genetic constitution that purely environment factors.
   • Each major racial group occupies a wise range of climate partly b/c acclimatisation & partly b/c off change in body size & partly b/c of technological adjustment. 

• Cultural Factor – some have direct bearing on the gene pool of a population & hence on race. These are related to cultural factors that favours certain genes over others like
  • Inbreeding & choice of mates
  • Medicine & genetic counselling
• Nutritional Factor
  • Two imp factors determine the nature of nutrition in any population
    1. Climate which favours growth of certain foods
    2. Cultural factors which affects pattern of consumption
  • Fredrick Husle – discus the impact of food preferences. Staple crops may lead to deficiencies which in turn act as selective forces in the population eg. maize → cause disease pellagra, Rice → Beri Beri
  • If these deficiencies are endemic, average body size is small, delayed growth. In such cases certain genotypes would be selected (response to nutritional stress) i.e Poor Nutrition → selection (acted for long time) → average body size in low
    • e.g European plains peasant – depends on grains for livelihood but soil deficient in calcium → small bones, low BMR & slow growth to protect from TB

Case study – Based on data R.D Mc Cracken suggests that selection has operated to increase the number of people with ability to synthesis lactase (i.e evolutionary changes in human population due to practice of dairying ) . Still contrary evidences is found in India where there is high frequency of lactase deficiency, despite widespread use of milk.

Conclusion – Thus heredity & env are mutual forces at work that lead to existence of variation. I.e Heredity provides the equipment & environment decides how much it can be used.

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Racial Classification & Differentiation

Introduction – classification simplify & bring order to the complexity in the natural world, making it easier to understand & study variation. As the Europeans began exploring the world, naturalists & other writers published description of the people who looked & acted differently.

Classification & History

• First published classification humans into distinct races – by Francois Bernier(1684)
  • divided people into various types, namely the Europeans, Africans (Negroes or blacks), Asian (Far Easterners) & Lapps.
• First Scientific Attempt – Swedish Natualist Carolus Linnaeu(1735) – separated humans into 4 basic “varieties on the basis of geography, colour, humour, posture, & customs. Were termed as
  • Homo Americans
  • Homo Europeans
  • Homo asiaticns
  • Homo afer  
• Advent of Darwinian model of evolution & mendelian genetics in the beginning of the 20th century, questioned the scientific validity of characteristics used as racial criteria & necessitated a radial reconsideration of the concept of race.
• In 1931 & sebsequently in 1947 Hooton, (American Anthropologist) suggested 4 fold classification of composite races, which is the result of cross breeding amongst the primary races
  • White (European, Eur- African, Caucosoid)
  • Negroid
  • Mogoloid
  • Composite Races 
• Ashley Montagu Classification, 1951 proposed the now widely accepted classification of races based on skin colour, hair form & head form into three major groups – Caucasoid, Negroid & Mongolid which are also further subdivided. He further pointed out that another division which is larger than an ethnic group may be distributed as Australiod, who is in fact archaic.

Ashley’s Montagu’s three Race classification – physical characteristics of three major races are as follows

Characters	Caucasoid	Negroid	Mongoloid
Intro	includes large no. of ethinic groups & racial elements
Skin colour	Light reddish white to olive brown, some are brown	Brown to brown black, some are yellow- brown	light yellow to yellow brown, some are reddish brown
Head Hair	• light blond to dark brown in colour, •fine to to medium in texture • Flat wavy to curly hair	• Brown – black in colour• coarse in texture • curly to frizzly or wooly in form	• brown to brown black in colour, • coarse in texture • straight in form
Head form	• dolichocephilc to brachycephalic• Height medium to very high	• predominantly dolichocephalic • height is low to medium	• Predominantly branchy – cephalic• height is medium
Body hair quantity	moderate to profuse	Slight	parsley distributed
Face	narrow to medium broad	medium broad to narrow. Prognathism is vary often Present	medium broad to very broad. Check bones are high & flat
check bones	Not prominent		Prominent
Eyes	colour is light blue to dark brown	brown to brown black	brown to dark brown, eye fold present (often)
Nose	leptorrhine to mesorrhine, usually bride is high	Platyrrhine, usually bridge is low	Mesorrhine to playtrrhine, usually bridge is low to medium
chine	usually projecting	slight	medium
lips	very thin to medium, small aversion	thick, much aversion	medium thickness with aversion of membranous often heavy integumented lips
Stature	Medium to tall	Very short to Tall	Medium t short
ABO Blood Group	Relatively high incidence of A2	Relatively high incidence of A2, comparatively high incidence of B	high incidence of A1, very low frequency of A2
Rh factor	highest frequency of Rh -ve	moderate frequency of RH -ve	Rh -ve is rare
Dermatoglyphics pattern intensity	Low	Great dispersion ranging from higher to lowest	high
Main line	Marked transversally type- ii of D line termination quite frequent	longitudinal alignment	longitudinal alignment
Ethnic groups within	• • Nordic – typical Representative Scandinavians • Alpine – mix of Nordic & Mediterranem

On Basis of Geographical Distribution – Garn has classified human races into three groups

• IGeographic Races – These are the those group of medelian populations which are seprated from each other by major geographical barriers.

Races	Geographical Range
Amerindian	from Alaska, North Canada & Labrador thr all of the America to the tip of South America
Polynesian	Pacific inland, form New Zealand to Hawaii & eastern Island
Micronesian	Pacific islands, limited to area from Ulithi Palau & Topi to Marshall & Gilbert Island
Melanesian – Papuan	New Guinea & Neighbouring Island
Australian	Austrlalia
Asistic	Eastern continental Asia, Japan Philippine island, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Formosa
Indian	India from Himalayas to the tip of Indian Peninsula
European	Europe & Western Asia, the Middle East & Africa north of the sahara
African	African south of the sahara

• Local Races – If the population is small or isolated, it is easier to identify & define a local race. A local race may be
  1. Isolated geographically (Eskimos of North America or the Ainu of japan), or
  2. Culturally (Gypsies or the Yemenite Jews)

Local Races	Local Races
Eskimo North American Indians Central American Indian FuegianLadinoNeo – HawaiiaMurrayian Australian Carpentarian Australian Turkic Tibe IraniNori Classic MongoloidSoutheast Asiatic Ainu	Hindu Dravidian Early European Northwest European Northeast European LappAlpineMediterranean North American coloured South African coloured East African Sudanese Forest Negro Bantu Bushman & hottentotAfrican Pvamv

• MIcro Races – Microraces are Medelian populations which differ from each other in few genetic loci. Their boundary can’t be defined & their no. range to infinty.

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Race crossing in Man

Introduction – Race crossing is interbreeding between two different human races. Interbreeding / Crossing b/w races would result in admixture of these traits.

History

• Different human races separated geographically have acquired race specified trait which were stylized through natural selection.
• However not long after, especially in the 15th century (start of colonisation), race crossing became an increased phenomenon.
• This led to admixing of racial traits, as seen in Afro- American or Anglo – Indians
• Example
  • Arabic & Semitic traders have penetrated through Africa
  • Asiatic traders have passed on & into the eastern borders of Europe
  • Europeans have penetrated south west Asia & all regions of the world

Result/outcome of Race Crossing – is formation of mixed or Secondary races with physical features showing a mixture of the primary races.

• Australoids or archaic caucasoids
• American Indians
• Afro-Americans
• Mullatto – A cross between Negrito & White

Cause of Race Crossing – Migration due to

• Historical Causes
  • Trade : British conquest all over world
  • War : Napoleon’s Expeditions
  • Expeditions to find new areas of world – eg. Columbus
  • Transportation of Negro as slave in different parts of world
  • Marriage alliances between royal families
  • Colonialism
• Modern Causes :
  • Industrialisation & Urbanisation,
  • Foreign education, foreign jobs,
  • transportation & communication
  • Globalisation

Debate & Studies

• During 1860 & 1900, Europeans & Americans felt new urgency about race problems. This was b/c of civil war & freeing of slaves in U.S.A & Europeans imperialistic activity in Africa & Asia
• In 19th century biologist felt that human races have different mental abilities & intellectually superior races (White races) should not breed with inferior races (Negros). Eg, Galton, Davenport, Panel Popenoe etc
• Castle argued that race crossing would result in disharmonies
• But later various scientist such as Julian Huxley & Haddon vigorously opposed superiority of races
• Later biologist & anthropologists declared that race crossing is sometimes favorable but is never detrimental (Leslie, Drenn & T. Dobzansky)
• Franz Boas & Huxley & Haddon also concluded that race crossing is harmless
• Finally , UNESCO declaration on race (1951) concluded that pure races don’t exist, and that there are no harmful effects of interracial studies.

Importance of race crossing

• Leads to Formation of new races with new traits
• Is a further testament that racism is only a myth without any scientific backing
• Promoters Cultural exchange & intermixing
• Is of Evolutionary value / significance

Conclusion – In India, race crossing has been going on since the start of inhabitation of the subcontinent. This has made India a melting pot of races.

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Serological

1. Blood Groups
   1. ABO System
      1. Karl Landsteiner in 1900 discovered ABO blood grouping.ABO blood groups were earliest traits to be analyzed by pedigrees.
      • Frequency of Genes throughout world
        • O is the commonest blood group throughout world. 62% gene f in world wide avg.
          • American Indians exclusively possess O gene & almost negligible A & B
        • A blood group with 22 % frequency
          • I^A occurs in very high frequency in some regions of Europe & Asia & also among certain Australian tribes.
          • Most of the Caucasoid have prevalence of I^A gene
        • B blood group with 16 % frequency
          • I^B has highest frequency in Central Asia & North India.
          • I^B gene is absent in most of the Australian Tribes
        • It appears that frequency of B decreases that of A gene increases as one proceeds from the pacific coast to Asia to Atlantic coast of Europe.
   2. MNS System
      • In 1927, Landsteiner & Levine found 2 human antigens,M& N,
      • don’t have no natural antigens → no effect in transfusion
        • M antigen → blood group M
        • N antigen → blood group N
        • M & N antigen → MN
      • M & N are codominant
      • Gene Frequency of M is
        • lowest in Australia (20%) &
        • highest in US(90%) & few other areas such as S.E ; Asia, Arabia etc .
        • In Europe it averages 50%
      • In 1947, Sanger & Race another antigen c/a S.
        • There are two antigen S & s
        • different from M& N.
        • Occur among individuals of all three MN blood types.
        • Gene frequency of S
          • highest in India & middle east (40%) , it is mostly associated as MS
          • Europe – 30-35%
          • Lowest in East Asia 5-20%
   3. Rh System
      1. Landsteiner & Weiner (1940) discovered Rh system in Rhesus monkey & human
      • The alleles R & r are respectively necessary for the Rh +ve & Rh -ve individuals.
      • 85 % of population is Rh+ & 15 % of population is Rh-ve
      • Case study : Hemolytic Disease of Newborn, HDN →
      • Among
        • Mongoloids – Rh- is very rare 0.5 to 1.5 %
        • Caucasoids – Rh – is high upto 15%
        • Negros – Rh occurs in 5-8% population
   4. Duffy System
      • Allele Fya & Fyb control Duffy +ve & -ve blood types
      • Fya is dominant over Fyb
      • Ration
        • In England Duffy +ve are 65 %
        • In Pak & India the frequecy of Duffy +ve is even more higher
        • Low frequech of Fya (0.14) is in American coloured population.
   5. Diego System
      • Dia & Dib, Dia is dominant & responsible for Diego antigen (+ve group )
      • Diego +ve individuals are Asiatic (Mongoloids) and the New world people who descended from Mongoloids.
   6. Kidd System
      • Two alleles Jk^a(dominant) & Jk^b
      • most common in West Africa & American colored people
      • It is least common in Chinese people.
   • William C. Boyd, one of the first & strongest advocates of the application of genetic methods to anthropology, has used the distribution of blood group genes to divide the human species into races
2. The Histocompatibility (HL-A) System
   • HL-A or Human Lecocyte Antigen is +nt on the surface of most organs & is responsible for graft regection.
   • The antigens are determined by 5 closely linked loci A, B, C, D & Dr on short arm of chromosome 6.
   • The alleles are broadly 3 groups ;
     • frequently high in all population such as A2
     • present in all but high in some such as A1 in Africans
     • confined to some population such as Bw 42 in Africans
3. Hemoglobin Polymorphism
   • many polymorphisms of Hb such as HbS, HbC, HbE, HbA, HbJ, Hbpunjab, HbBompay, HbLolthansa etc
   • The HbS is well distributed in Africa b/c it provides resistance against malaria. It is also found in south India.
   • HbC is well distributd in Eastern Africa.
   • Hb E common in south east asia
   • HbD or HbPunjab is found in found in various parts of world. It is also found in Sikhs & Gujaratis.
4. Isoenzyme & G6PDIsoenzymes or isozymes are which differ structurally but function is same. ex – Glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase
   • G6PD found in many tissues but including RBC. & its deficiency, leads to destruction of RBC in certain condition. eg, upon intake of bean, Vivia fava (Favism) & malarial durg, primaquine
   • The variability in the enzyme G6PD is reflected in rate of migration of the enzyme in an electric field & severity of RBC destruction during intake of certain substances.
   • B(-) from is prevalent in Mediterranean, Middle East, Greece, India in about 20% population reaching a level of 50-60% in a Jewish isolate. It has same rate of migration but severity of RBC lysis is great.
   • A(+) & A(-) forms are present in 20 % in African population
5. Serum Protein
   • Haptoglobins – It transport free hb to liver for breakdown of haem & ultimate production of bile salt, biliverdin,
     • It prevent hb from damaging the kidney by passing through glomeruli.
     • These can be seperated by electrophoresis.
     • In 1955, Smithies revognized that the patterns of haptoglobins are not same in all individuals & there are types
       • Type 1-1 , 2-2 ,2-1
     • These patterns are inherited & two alleles are involved
       • Hpy^1 & Hpy^2 alleles
     • Gene frequency
       • Hp^1 around 40% in Europe & 60-70% in tropical Africa & in Asia (China, India) 10-20%
       • 30 % of African don’t have any allele
     • The selective forces at work are not known clearly.
     • In some infection & inflammatory diseases, higher levels of haptoglobins are found.
   • Transferrins – Transport Fe from site of RBC destruction & intestine to bone marrow.
     • Each molecule can bind to 2atom of Fe
     • Slow variant , TfD1 is quite common in Africa, Australia, New Guinea & adjacent islands.
     • TfDchi – first described in china found in various populations of South east & east Asia, in the Veddahs of Ceylon & in some Indian tribes
   1. Albumins
   2. Anti-trypsins – this protein inhibits trypsin & certain other proteolytic enzymes,
   3. C3 component of Complement – It is a factor of fresh serum -needed for the destruction of foreign cells that have been coated with antibody.
   4. GC Component
   5. Pseudocholinesterase
      • It hydrolyses certain organic esters & is present in various tissues but not in red cells
      • Individuals homozygous for the allele show weak enzyme activity & heterozygotes show intermediate activity levels.
      • The recessive gene has high frequency in Europeans.
6. Immunoglobins
   • These are the humoral antiodies formed primarily by B-lymphocytes in response to the presence of foreign substances( antigens) in the body & represent one of the main defensive mechanisms against infection by pathogens.
   • IgM, IgG, IgA, IgD & IgE are 5 types of immunoglobulins

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Ethnicity

An ethnic group or ethnicity is a population group whose members identify with each other on the basis of common nationality or shared cultural traditions.Practise common culture.

A tribe is a family grown large, but not yet so large as to be a nationality. A nation is both a race and ethnic group: A group of people who share in common both race and culture.

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Sub division & Ethnic Groups within Major Races

Ethinic groups which fall into this category are in Caucasoid

• Mediterranean – In Portugal, Itlaly, France, Greece, Turkey, North Africa, Arabia, Iran, Afg, Pakistan & India
  • Ibero Insular / Clasic Mediterrranean / Basic Mediterranean
  • Littoral / Atlanto Mediterranean group
  • Irano Afghan / Indo Afghan
• Nordic – Typical representatives are Scandinavians
  • Can be seen in Baltic region, Northern Germany, Norhtern France, parts of Netherlands & Belgium, British Isles & USA
• Alpine – These are mixture of Nordic & Mediterranean groups
  • Central Europe, Balkans, Denmark, Norway, North Italy
• East Baltic – Baltic states, Russia, North Eastern Germany, Poland & Finland
• Dinaric – also c/a Adriatic or Illyrian
  • are distributed across Yugolslavia, Albania, Autrain Tyrol & sporadically in central europe
• Armenoid – Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Iraq, Iran etc
• Keltic – Icelnad, Scotland, wales
• Lapp – Sweden, North Finland, Norway etc
• Indo-Dravidian – South & Central India
  • These groups are predominantly Caucasoid & some mixture of Classic Mediterranean & Australoid elements can be seen
• Polynesian – in Polynesian islands of Pacific Including New Zealand, Samoa, Marquesan & Hawaii.
  • Composite race : Mongoloid + Negroid mix.
• Ainu – Northern Japan, Yezo & South Sakhlain
  • They represent a very ancient stock of Japan who is predominantly Caucasoid with considerable Mongoloid Mix
  • They resemble the Australian Aborigines in many features.

The Negroid are further divided into

• African Negro
  • True Negroes – found in West Africa
  • Nilotic Negroes or Nilote – in Upper Nile Valley
  • Bantu – in Central & South Africa
  • Bushmen – Kalahari desert of South West Africa
  • Hottentots – in south west Africa
  • Negrillo / African Pygmy – In equatorial forest of Congo regionPygmy are very short people also distributed in Oceanic & Asiatic regions such Pygmines are callled Negrito.
• Oceanic Negro
  • Negrios – The Andamanese, Semang, Aeta, Tapiro are the imp. representative of Negritos, distributed in Anadamans, East Sumatra, Philippine Island & New Guinea respectively
    • Asiatic
    • Oceanic
  • Malenisian Papuan – distributed in New Guinea, Fiji & neighbouring Island

Subdivision of Mogoloids on the basis of geographical Location

• Classic Mongoloid – Siberia, North China, Mongolia, Tibet
• Arctic or Eskimoids – Arctic coast of North Ameriaca, Greenland, Alska etc.
• Indonesian – Malay Mongoloid
  • Southern China, Indo-china, Burma, Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Dutch- East Indies, Philippines, Japan & Interios of Malay Archipelago.
• American Indian or Amerindian group – North, Middle & South America.
  • These are predominantly mongoloid with some nonmongoloid racial strains like Caucasoid, Australoid & Some Negroid elements.