- \n
- Physical \/ Biological <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Sociocultural<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Archaeological <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Linguistic <\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
Relationship between Linguistics & Socio-Cultural Anthropology 10 2019 <\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\nSociocultural Anthropology <\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Introduction<\/u><\/strong> : Socio-cultural Anthropology includes the study of ways of life of people in terms of place and time. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Definition<\/u><\/strong> : It is defined as the branch of anthropology which studies socio cultural evolution and variation. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Origin<\/u><\/strong> : It was started in 19th century<\/strong> in the form of ethnology<\/strong> and later developed into socio-cultural anthropology with the efforts of A.L Kroeber<\/u><\/strong> who merged together of social and cultural anthropology.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Goal of Sociocultural Anthropology<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- to describe entire range of human behaviour & develop explanation of similarities & differences among cultures.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- To study primitive culture in present form.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- To study cultural contact.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Reconstruct social history.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Search for universally valid social laws.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Development of socio-cultural anthropology<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Ethnology & Theory of Evolution<\/u><\/strong>\n
- \n
- The branch of socio-cultural anthropology had a systematic beginning in the form of theory of evolution<\/strong>. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Evolutionists were involved in comparative study of simple societies and cultures with the intention of knowing the origin and evolution of human evolution. This method is known as ethnology<\/strong> which is comparative study of cultures and investigation of theoretical problems using information about different groups. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Till about 20th century the term socio-cultural anthropology was not popular. Rather it was ethnology. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- The old name ethnology was later replaced by sociocultural anthropology.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Ethnography<\/u><\/strong>: Another related concept is ethnography which involves detailed description of one culture<\/strong> and not comparative study.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Social Anthropology<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0–\n
- \n
- was popularised by Radcliffe Brown<\/u><\/strong> in Britain which is general theoretical study of social institutions, social relations, laws, religion, political organisation and economic organisations etc.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Social Anthro is largely synchronic denoting the study of societies & culture at a given point of time.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Cultural Anthropology<\/u><\/strong> was popularised by Franz Boas<\/u><\/strong>in America. It studies human behaviour that is learnt <\/strong>rather than transmitted. Cultural anthropology encompasses diachronic approach<\/strong> denoting study of societies and culture through time. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Sociocultural Anthropology<\/u><\/strong>: In 1953<\/strong>, at an international symposium of anthropology at Geneva<\/strong>, with efforts ofA.L Kroeber<\/u><\/strong> (
Krupene<\/u><\/s><\/strong>,) new term Socio-cultural Anthropology was accepted to be more appropriate since it encompasses both society and culture.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\nScope of Sociocultural Anthropology<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- The scope of socio-cultural \u24b6 spread it\u2019s subject matter b\/w two main branches,\u00a0ethnography & ethnology <\/strong>\n
- \n
- Ethnography<\/u><\/strong>\n
- \n
- Describe one culture at a particular time<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Descriptive, ideographic (highlights unique elements) & synchronic<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Ethnology<\/u><\/strong>\n
- \n
- It compares<\/strong> one culture with others based on ethnographic data. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Analytical, comparative, nomothetic & generalising branch (general) <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Sociocultural Anthropology includes two broad specialisation.\n
- \n
- Topical Specialisation<\/u><\/strong> – cultivates every aspects of culture & society as a specialisation. Thus they are – include Political Anthropology, Ecological Anthropology, Legal Anthropology, Economic Anthropology, Psychological Anthropology, Symbolic Anthropology, Cognitive Anthropology , Ethno-technology & Ethno-botany
<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Area specialisation<\/u><\/strong> – highlights the sociocultural similarities and regularities in specific area like, North America, Polynesian, Africa, Micronesian etc. <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Theories to study Sociocultural Anthropology<\/u><\/strong>: <\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Classical evolutionism, <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Historical particularism, <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Diffusionism, <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Functionalism, <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Neo-evolutionism etc.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Relevance of sociocultural anthropology<\/u><\/strong>: <\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- helps in generating awareness of similarities and differences in human culture and behaviour <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- helps in inculcating tolerance and avoiding conflicts <\/strong>among public resulting into world peace and prosperity.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Helps in formulation of policies & implementation<\/strong> of govt schemes<\/strong> e.g Beef eating in Islam & hindu, NMS complex to understand culture<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Helps in rehabilitation & resettlement process e.g Tribal resettlement process e.g Tribal resettlement of Chenchus, birhorns etc<\/strong>. <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\nPhysical Anthropology<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Definition<\/u> – <\/strong>Physical Anthropology is the oldest<\/strong> discipline of \u24b6 which deals with biological evolution of humans & their variability, adaptations to environmental stress and his relations (i.e. order primates) and applied knowledge of biological science. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Physical anthropology should correctly be termed as biological anthropology<\/strong>, as it using evolutionary perspective, deals not only with physical aspect like bone, muscles & organs & how it functions to allow survival & reproduction but also the genetic <\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- the latter is supplementing and gradually replacing the former.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Origin<\/u><\/strong>: The discipline emerged from the discoveries and researches, centered on basic enquiries of human being about himself like who we are? Where are we from? Why are we different from each other? What will happen to us in future? <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Scope and Development of Physical Anthropology<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- The beginning of physical anthropology was very random<\/strong>. In late 18th century, scientists become curious about physical differences among humans<\/strong> that laid the foundations for the study of race. <\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Human Biological Evolution<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0: Subsequently in 1850s,\u00a0fossils of some of the ancestors of man\u00a0(Dryopithecus and Neanderthal man) were discovered that promoted the interest in human biological evolution.\n
- \n
- It tells about man\u2019s place in the animal kingdom by making a comparative study on the different groups of man & his near relations like apes, monkey etc I.e Primate <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- It studied evolution of man from simple homogenous single cell organism. <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Primatology<\/u><\/strong>: In 1871<\/strong>, Charles Darwin<\/u><\/strong> in his book ‘Descent of Man<\/strong>‘ opined that man must have evolved from apes and thereafter started the study of monkeys, apes and man i.e. primates. The subject that emerged from these discoveries and researches is known as physical anthropology.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- New physical anthropology\/Biological anthropology<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Human Variation<\/u><\/strong>\n
- \n
- Compares different aspects of race with the help of somatology & anthropometry <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Analyse the emergence of difficult physical features of races. For ex Dark colour of Negroids, fair colour <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Human genetics<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0– deals with descent, variation & heredity etc\n
- \n
- E.g ABO blood group system & variations <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Mendel\u2019s laws of inheritance <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Studies genetic variation in the population with the knowledge of mutations, isolations, migrations etc <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Demography<\/u><\/strong> – studies various facts including hereditary & environment that influence fertility & mortality. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- paleoanthropology <\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Comparative osteology<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Dermatoglyphics etc.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Tools of Physical Anthropology<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Genetic traits <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Physiological traits <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Anthropometric <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Biochemical tests – Blood group ; serology <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Relevance of Physical Anthropology<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- To know about biological past which establishes man’s place <\/strong>in animal kingdom.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Infuses confidence in man about his future course of development.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Proving the myth of racism<\/strong> and thus combating racial arrogance.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Applied physical & biological anthropology<\/u><\/strong>\n
- \n
- Health and Nutrition, <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- defence designing, <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- forensic investigations etc.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Sports anthropology<\/u><\/strong>:- Increased efficiency and effectiveness, decreased wastage of time, money and energy.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
New Physical Anthropology<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Washburn<\/u><\/strong> gave this generic name to changing nature of Physical Anthropology in 20th century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Changing Nature of Physical Anthropology<\/u><\/strong>: 20th Century ; beginning of 20th century, changes in subject matter of & scope<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Subject matter dominated by genetic studies <\/u><\/strong>replacing morphological studies <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Interaction between heredity and environment<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Study to know interaction between genetics, behavior and culture-social biology<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Scope changed from mere speculation to application for mankind.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Changes in 20th Century – Studies<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- ABO blood group system <\/strong>discovered by Landsteiner<\/u><\/strong> in 1900<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Mendel’s laws of inheritance<\/strong> rediscovered in 1901<\/strong>. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- First Mathematical explanation in the form of Hardy-Weinberg principle<\/u><\/strong>– 1908<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Cytology, cytogenetics, biochemistry, <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- population genetics, <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- synthetic theory etc.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- UNESCO declaration by\u00a0Ashley Montague and Tea<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0– Racism is a myth, no pure races. .\n
- \n
- declared that races do not differ significantly with respect to their capacities and abilities. Hence forth the term race is replaced with ethnic groups or Mendelian populations.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
Conclusion<\/u><\/strong>: Should we continue to call these changes New Physical Anthropology?<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- What Washburn called first belonged to an integral part of subject matter and there is nothing new in it.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- It is no more physical only. Thus realizing the expansion of the discipline, we use a wider term: Biological Anthropology.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Difference B\/w Old & New Physical Anthropology <\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Parameters <\/strong><\/td> Old Physical Anthropology<\/strong><\/td> New Physical Anthropology <\/strong><\/td><\/tr> Scope <\/strong><\/td> Limited scope only in theory but never achieved in practice. <\/td> Vast & Universal <\/td><\/tr> Concept <\/strong><\/td> Included Fields\u2756 the form of bones & teeth \u2756 Determination of age, race, & sex from bones & teeth \u2756 Human growth\u2756 Body composition <\/td> It encompasses\u2756 blood group studies \u2756 Biochemical human genetics especially of so c\/l polymorphism \u2756 Analysis of evolutionary factoids such as mutation, natural selection, genetic drift \u2756 Studies of living non – human primates<\/td><\/tr> Research Methodology<\/strong><\/td> \u2756 simple descriptive & not analytical \u2756 No efforts made to develop hypotheses & theology \u2756 Emphasis was on classification not interpretation <\/td> \u2756 application of population Genetics to an understanding of this evolution \u2756 Hypothesis testing based on concepts of adaptation & evolution <\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\nArchaeological Anthropology <\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Intro<\/u><\/strong>: Archaeology is the study of antiquity of past. AA combines Archaeology & Anthropology. It is concerned with systemic retrieval & analysis<\/strong> of the physical remains including the skeleton & cultural remains left behind by ancients humans & attempts to reconstruct env, culture & society of the prehistoric & historic population & its G&D in time from antiquities by highly specialised techs. <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Definition<\/u><\/strong>: a study of material objects as a means of describing & explaining human behaviour & origin, growth & development of culture. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Done by Archaeologist: <\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- share the objective with historians(from written doc.) , cultural historians; <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- from antiquities, by tracing clues <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Why needed<\/u><\/strong>: written history limited to some culture & if present give inadequate picture; so necessary to supplement <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Origin<\/u><\/strong>; from 1797 whenn a farmer John Frere send Acheulian tools to Society of Antiquities in London. with large scale excavation in 19th C -> popular<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Types<\/u><\/strong>: old & New <\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Old;\u00a0prior to 1960\n
- \n
- study of all extinct culture, but could deal with only a few<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- gave only description & chronology of a few; not interpretive <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- New (contemporary); from the early 1960s onwards\n
- \n
- reconstructs of culture in past by excavating & studying remains; <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- descriptions of present-day primitive culture also utilised; to know similarities -> approach c\/a Ethno-archeology <\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Approaches Followed<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Evolutionary Perspective Approach<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0– emphasis on role of tech + economy in generation progress & Evolution of culture\n
- \n
- Evolutionary Perspective Approach<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0– emphasis on role of tech + economy in generation progress & Evolution of culture\n
- Old;\u00a0prior to 1960\n
- Mendel’s laws of inheritance<\/strong> rediscovered in 1901<\/strong>. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Subject matter dominated by genetic studies <\/u><\/strong>replacing morphological studies <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- To know about biological past which establishes man’s place <\/strong>in animal kingdom.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- paleoanthropology <\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- New physical anthropology\/Biological anthropology<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Human Biological Evolution<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0: Subsequently in 1850s,\u00a0fossils of some of the ancestors of man\u00a0(Dryopithecus and Neanderthal man) were discovered that promoted the interest in human biological evolution.\n
- The beginning of physical anthropology was very random<\/strong>. In late 18th century, scientists become curious about physical differences among humans<\/strong> that laid the foundations for the study of race. <\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Helps in formulation of policies & implementation<\/strong> of govt schemes<\/strong> e.g Beef eating in Islam & hindu, NMS complex to understand culture<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Area specialisation<\/u><\/strong> – highlights the sociocultural similarities and regularities in specific area like, North America, Polynesian, Africa, Micronesian etc. <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
- It compares<\/strong> one culture with others based on ethnographic data. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Ethnography<\/u><\/strong>\n
- Evolutionists were involved in comparative study of simple societies and cultures with the intention of knowing the origin and evolution of human evolution. This method is known as ethnology<\/strong> which is comparative study of cultures and investigation of theoretical problems using information about different groups. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- The branch of socio-cultural anthropology had a systematic beginning in the form of theory of evolution<\/strong>. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Ethnology & Theory of Evolution<\/u><\/strong>\n