{"id":512,"date":"2025-09-14T10:31:48","date_gmt":"2025-09-14T10:31:48","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.observingthemortals.com\/?page_id=512"},"modified":"2025-09-14T10:42:56","modified_gmt":"2025-09-14T10:42:56","slug":"1-1-evolution-of-indian-culture-and-civilization","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.observingthemortals.com\/index.php\/1-1-evolution-of-indian-culture-and-civilization\/","title":{"rendered":"1.1: Evolution of Indian Culture and Civilization"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Palaeolithic In India&nbsp;<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/b97fc4a5-9698-08b2-20df-c2652a3038d6\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Definition&nbsp;&#8211; Cultural debbrise from entire period of&nbsp;<strong>Pleistocene (3mya-10,000 BC)<\/strong>&nbsp;is termed as Palaeolithic .In India (0.5 mya to 10,000 BC)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Climate&nbsp;&#8211; characterised by major climatic fluctuations;&nbsp;4 phases of&nbsp;<strong>glaciation<\/strong>&nbsp;in north &amp;&nbsp;<strong>pluviations<\/strong>&nbsp;in the south punchuated by 3 phases of dry seasons&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Glaciation &#038; inter glaciation in\u00a0Europe\u00a0&#038; American;\u00a0(GMRW)\n<ol>\n<li>Gunz<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mindal<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Riss<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Wiirm<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Pluvial(heavy rain fall)\u00a0&#038; Interpluvial in tropical region like South &#038; East Africa\u00a0(K3G\n<ol>\n<li>Kangeran<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Kamesian<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Kanjeron<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Gamblian&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Research &amp; Discovery&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;<strong>First palaeolithic stone tool in India &#8211;&nbsp;<\/strong>Discoverer<strong>&nbsp;Robert Bruce Foote<\/strong>&nbsp;in&nbsp;<strong>1863<\/strong>.&nbsp;<strong>Pallavaram (<\/strong>First palaeolithic cultural site.<strong>)&nbsp;<\/strong>Present in Chennai, Tamil Nadu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>research got a boost &#8211;\u00a0 \u2018<strong>Yale Cambridge Expedition\u2019<\/strong>\u00a0in\u00a0<strong>1935<\/strong>\u00a0led by\u00a0H.\u00a0<strong>De terra and Patterson. (<\/strong>to give chronology &#8211; choose<strong>&nbsp;Patwar Plateau (<\/strong>b\/c entirely<strong>&nbsp;lacustrine depositional bed 2. already worked )<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Man has been living in India for 500,000 ya (.5mya) &amp; overall around 3mya but no human fossil have been found in Indian lower Palaeolithic<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Come up with\u00a0Himalayan Glaciation\n<ul>\n<li>Tatrot &#8211; b\/c&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Pinjore &#8211; first Inter Glaciation&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>TD &#8211; Bolder conglomerate&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>T1&nbsp; &#8211; 2nd Glaciation&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>T2 &#8211; 2nd Interglaciation&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>T3 &#8211; 3rd&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>T4&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Tools &amp; Regional variation World&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td rowspan=\"2\">Age&nbsp;<\/td><td colspan=\"3\">Sites&nbsp;<\/td><td colspan=\"3\">Tool&nbsp;<\/td><td rowspan=\"2\">Associated Human Species&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Europe&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Africa<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Asia (spl India)<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Tech&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Tool Types<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Material<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Lower&nbsp;(500K-50k )<\/td><td>Clacton-on-sea (England)Terra Amata, Abbeville, St. Acheule &amp; Levallois (France)<\/td><td>olduvai Gorge (Tanzania)<\/td><td><\/td><td>Low expenditure of energy in mfg (<strong>1\u00b0 fabricat<\/strong>)- DirectHammer- Rock on Rock- Step flaking&nbsp;<\/td><td>Pebble ToolsCleaver, Handaxe, chopper-chopping<\/td><td>Quartzite (India)<\/td><td>Homo erectus<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Middle&nbsp;(50k-40k)<\/td><td>Mousterian (Neanderthal), Site la Mouster, France<\/td><td rowspan=\"2\">Kenya &amp; Uganda<\/td><td><\/td><td>Cylinder&nbsp; Hammer&nbsp;<\/td><td>Flake Tools(Awls, points, side scrapers)<\/td><td>Cryptocrystallne silica eg. flint, chart, agate, jasper etc<\/td><td>Homo Neanderthal&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Upper (40k-10k)<\/td><td>Peridordian &amp; Aurignancean followed by Solutrecian &amp; Magdalenian cultures<\/td><td><\/td><td>Punch flaking&nbsp; also used&nbsp;<\/td><td>Blade &amp; Bone tools(Blacked blade, knives, Burin, end scraper, harpiins)&nbsp;<\/td><td><strong><u>Lithic<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; quartz, flint etc<strong><u>Non lithic<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; bones, ivory, homs&nbsp;<\/td><td>Homo sapiens&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Compound techniques &#8211; Clactonian Flacking, Levallois technique (tortoise flakes)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Division<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>In India. Upper Palaeolithic period is Not as distinct as found in Europe ;&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>but in recent excavation sites it emerged&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>So, division in 3, Early stone age or lower, middle, upper palaeolithic&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Regional Variations in India<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/bae62efa-7b31-0f0d-2fc7-e998ed5ee8ec\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Conclusion&nbsp;&#8211; In India, parallels of lower palaeo &amp; middle palaeo found all over the country but same is not true for the later cultures. Bone tools are not frequentrly found (weren&#8217;t there or acidic soil of area engulfed them &#8211; not known) Significant period -&gt;&nbsp;<strong>Evolution from H. erectus to H. sapiens<\/strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Lower Palaeolithic&nbsp;<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p>Indian lower palaeolithic can neither be arranged in any definite sequence or chronological order nor should be considered as a uniform cultural stage.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Climate&nbsp;&#8211; Gunz Mindel Glacial (europe) &amp; 2nd Interglacial ;&nbsp; Kangeran &amp; Interpluvial b\/w Kangeran &amp; Kamasian in South&nbsp;&amp; East Africa &#8211; cover greater part of ice age&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Time Period&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;(500K-50k) &amp; Lower Pleistocene epoch &#8211; early upper&nbsp;<strong>Pleistocene<\/strong>&nbsp;(in India)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Human Species&nbsp;&#8211; Earliest period of human culutral developemt built by&nbsp;<strong>Homo erectus&nbsp;<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Technology&nbsp;&#8211; (Primary fabrication)-&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Direct Percussion or Stone Hammer &#8211; Rock on Rock&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Simple Controlled Tech or Step Flaking -Rock on Rock&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Clactonian Tech-&nbsp;<strong>flakes of considerable longer dimension<\/strong>&nbsp;removed&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>levalloise Tech&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Anvil on Anvil Tech&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cylinder hammer tech&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/ec3290e8-c0fe-b4bd-45c6-1b16e96daeb3\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Material &#8211;&nbsp;Quartzite (India)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Type&nbsp;-Pebble Tools,&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>chopper-chopping &#8211; cutting or chopping<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Handaxe &#8211; digging &amp; Piercing&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cleaver, &#8211; digging, skinning, piercing&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Purpose of tools&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Patterson&nbsp;&#8211; tools from&nbsp;<strong>Soan valley<\/strong>&#8211; for cutting &amp; chopping, digging &amp; skinning&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Zeuner&nbsp;&#8211; handaxes must have been used for digging out edible roots, cutting, boring &amp; piercing, chopping &amp; cleaving &amp; skinning&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Tools&nbsp;&#8211; 1st tools found in&nbsp;<strong><u>Olduvai gorge of Tanzania<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/b31195c9-4eb1-d3f0-f07d-6d29c1ecc22e\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Sociocultural Activites&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Food &amp; gathering &amp; Hunting &#8211; nomad&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Homo erectus<\/strong>&nbsp;is associated with this culture&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Intra group cooperation&nbsp;for hunting &#8211; hunting of large animals&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Invention of fire<\/strong>&nbsp;(Acc. to Bhattacharya, 1984 gathering around fire for equal tradition benefits \u2192&nbsp; helped in consolidating social bonds ) &#8211; ( in case of India in middle Palaeolithic)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>group living \/ cave living (Olduvian, Peking)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Naked<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Settlement near source of water (<strong><u>absence of pottery<\/u><\/strong>)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Cannibalism<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Narmada &amp; Soan valley&nbsp;show continuity of habitation o&amp; changes by indigenous experience.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Region &amp; Sites&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sites located near water sources, lived in&nbsp;rock shelters &amp; caves, rarely in huts of leaves (Thousand of settlements were found at coastal area all over India&nbsp;except Kerala and alluvial planes of the Indus and the Ganga.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>All evidence are of stone tools,&nbsp;<strong>no human fossils found<\/strong>; may be due to acidic soil&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>Region<\/td><td>Sites<\/td><td>Characteristics&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>North India<\/u><\/strong>characterized by glaciation -inter glaciation seq.&nbsp;c- Added element of uniqueness to Indian Paleolithic&nbsp;<\/td><td>1.&nbsp;<strong><u>Soan Valley<\/u><\/strong>Pre SoanEarly Soan<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/89ded206-9ab2-f5a9-9737-6f8b4fec0385\">Potwar b\/w Indus &amp; Jhelum (Rawalpindi in Centre)&nbsp;Soan &#8211; tributary of Indusexcavated by &#8211;&nbsp;<strong>De terra &amp; Patterson (Yale-Cambride; 1935)<\/strong>6 Terraces &#8211; TD to t5<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"212.89296127319338px\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/25041689-eb03-13a2-4ea4-d72d4547078f\">Similar by&nbsp;<strong><u>B.B lal<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;in&nbsp;<strong><u>Beas Valley<\/u><\/strong><\/td><td>Predominance of chopper &amp; chopping tools (pebbles) &#8211; blunted toolssome handaxes &amp; flakes have also been found &#8211; cleaver alsoPre Soanlarge boulders-split pebbles &amp; flakes with small bulb of percussion&nbsp; &#8211; worn condn-absence of any working on them &#8211; s c\/a&nbsp;<strong><u>Pseudoartifacts<\/u><\/strong>later considered as manfacturing base of early soan tradition By&nbsp;<strong><u>Movcls (1944)<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;<strong><u>Fairsenia (1975)<\/u><\/strong>comparable to&nbsp;<strong><u>somme valley (france)<\/u><\/strong>&#8211;&nbsp;<strong><u>Gabriel de Mortillet<\/u><\/strong>Early Soan&nbsp;good size with&nbsp;some flakes alsohand axe &amp; pebble tools, chopper chopping&nbsp;divided into&nbsp;<strong><u>A<\/u><\/strong>(cores with no flakes),&nbsp;<strong><u>B<\/u><\/strong>(evidence of faking )&amp;&nbsp;<strong><u>C<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(least worn choppers chopping tools with certain side choppers)&nbsp;Imp<strong><u>Chauntra<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(in Potwar basal gravel)-&nbsp;<strong>only site in world where chopper- chopping tools are found together with handaxes-cleavers<\/strong>&nbsp;-may indicative of two population living together with diff. tool tech &amp; typologyDifference&nbsp;Late soan tools&nbsp;&#8211; are lighters &amp; neater &amp; flakes tools increased&nbsp;Evolved Soan&nbsp;&#8211; yielded blades &amp; blade tools but low quantity to indicate radicale change (so can&#8217;t draw II from European&nbsp; UP)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td rowspan=\"3\"><strong><u>Western India<\/u><\/strong><strong><u><\/u><\/strong>New avenues of info.&nbsp;c- not only present but shows evidence of evolved into successful late Acheulians&nbsp;<\/td><td>Chambal Valley (Rj )&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;<strong>Misra<\/strong><\/td><td>larger no. of lower palaeolithic tools&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Didwana&nbsp;near Jodhpur (RJ) &#8211;&nbsp;<strong><u>Misra<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(1980)early AcheulianSite&nbsp; &#8211; only stone hammer tech<\/td><td>evidence of substantial human settlements&nbsp;by&nbsp;<strong><u>pollen profiling<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;in RJVery Rich acheulian sites c\/a&nbsp;<strong><u>Singi Talav<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;Near D. &#8211;&nbsp;acc. to him &#8211; earliest power palaeolithic industry in India with chppers &amp; heavy handaxes&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Sabarmati Valley&nbsp;(GJ)conducive climatic condn for human existancelate Acheulian Site &#8211; cylinder hammer tech<\/td><td>tools similar to european Acheulian tradition&nbsp;evidence used are &#8211;&nbsp;<strong><u>stratigraphic<\/u><\/strong>In Gj &#8211; Rich deposits &#8211; evidence of&nbsp;clactonian flakes, primitive choppers&nbsp;prepared by removal of flakes, massive Abevilian handaxes, bebble-butted handaxes &amp; flake-cleavers made by&nbsp;cylinder hammer tech.&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Central Indiach- Pluviation -inter pluviation seq.&nbsp;<\/td><td>Narmada Valley&nbsp;Adamgarh (HoshanabadNarsingpurHathnoraBhimbetka&nbsp;by&nbsp;<strong><u>De Terra<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;to have some idea of effect of different climatic fluctuations&nbsp;<strong><u>Discovery (by Dr. Arun Solankia) of Homo erectus<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;c\/a&nbsp;Narmada Man with Abbeville-Acheulian industry&nbsp;increased interest in&nbsp;<strong><u>Hathnora village<\/u><\/strong><\/td><td>Characterised by large(masssive sized) handaxes, cleavers, chopper chopping tools &amp;&nbsp;clactonian flakesImp<strong>discovery of only skelton remain from LP<\/strong><strong><u>Bhimbetka<\/u><\/strong>(700 caves &amp; rock shelters) &#8211; Habitation siteD. by&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong><u>V.S Wakankar<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;in&nbsp;<strong>1962<\/strong>&nbsp;&amp; S-&nbsp;<strong><u>V.N. Misra<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(exc. Largest cave III F-23 )Earliest traces of Human life on Indian subcontinent (UNESCO WHS)8 layers (6-8 lower Acheulian &#8211; LP in Indian c) &amp; 5 layer ML &amp; 4th UP&nbsp;<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"136.142333984375px\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/cc20fff0-c68a-3b07-4404-e270046b71ab\"><strong><u>flake cleavers<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;is pecularity of Bhimbetka acheulians&nbsp;absence&nbsp;of&nbsp;<strong>chopper chopping &amp; Abbevilian type<\/strong>differentiates it from other LP sitestools made in rock shelters: evident from debris&nbsp;<strong><u>orthoquartzite<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;for handaxe &amp; cleaver; others by&nbsp;<strong><u>yellowish quartzite<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(wither faster)&nbsp;<strong><u>Adamgarh<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(rock shelters on bank of Narmada in Hoshangabadby&nbsp;<strong><u>R.V Joshi<\/u><\/strong>f. include &#8211; paintngs, tools &amp; even raw material resembles bimbetkamicroliths, more denser than BhimbetkaAcheulian tools, along with handaxes &amp; cleavers, side scrappers &amp; points are majority&nbsp;<strong><u>Belan Valley (Vindhyan UP)<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;&nbsp; Mirzapur&nbsp;discovered &amp; studied by&nbsp;<strong><u>G.R Sharma<\/u><\/strong>site show stage&nbsp;ready to transition to middle palaeolithic<strong>moderate<\/strong>&nbsp;size handazes cleavers, flakes &#8211; resembles&nbsp;French Mousterian&nbsp;Goat, sheep &amp; cattle were domesticated around 25,000 B.C.(For Prelimis)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td rowspan=\"3\">Eastern Region&nbsp;coastal plain, drained&nbsp; by rivers &amp; having hillly terrain &#8211; rich heritage of lp<\/td><td>OdishaKuliana &amp; Kamarpara &#8211;&nbsp;Kamta &amp; BangriposiMahanadi River&nbsp;Sambalpur<\/td><td><strong><u>Kuliana &amp; Kamarpara<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(Mayurbhanj District)&nbsp;by&nbsp;<strong><u>NK Bose &amp; Dharani Sen<\/u><\/strong>2 quarry pits formed by&nbsp;<strong><u>Burhabalang rive<\/u><\/strong>r &#8211; containing collection of lower palaeolithic tools mostly chopper, chopping also some hand axes &amp; cleavers of Acheulian type<strong><u>Kamata &amp; Bangriposi<\/u><\/strong>by&nbsp;<strong><u>valentine ball<\/u><\/strong>very advanced Acheulian handxes along with&nbsp; levalloise flakes, with very few chopping tools<strong><u>Mahanadi River&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>BY&nbsp;<strong><u>Mohapatra<\/u><\/strong>same as result yielded by Ball&nbsp;<strong><u>Sambalput<\/u><\/strong>by&nbsp;<strong><u>Ratha<\/u><\/strong>huge assemblage&nbsp;also evidence of cylinder hammer technique &amp; levaloise flakes&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Bihar&nbsp;Paisra &#8211; Monger district&nbsp;<\/td><td><strong><u>Paisra<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Monger District&nbsp;open air primary siteby&nbsp;<strong><u>Pant &amp; Jaiswa<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; having unique texture of&nbsp;Stong evidence of Acheulian traditiontool assemblage of flares, cores, hammerstones etc&nbsp;evidence of&nbsp;Mesolithic settlers<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>West Benglal &amp; JH&nbsp;Singhbhum (JH) &amp; Midnapur (w.Bengal)<\/td><td>by&nbsp;<strong><u>Ashol Ghosh<\/u><\/strong>large no. of LP assemblage on hillly sloes along&nbsp;<strong><u>river subarnarekha<\/u><\/strong>Poor chopper chopping element, however excellently presented late Acheulian hadnaxes &amp; cleavers&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>North-Eastern Region<\/td><td><strong><u>Meghalaya<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;by T.C Sharma&nbsp;Extreme tip tilll now<\/td><td><strong><u>T.C Sharma<\/u><\/strong>Area around&nbsp;<strong><u>Rongram<\/u>&nbsp;<u>&amp;<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;adjoining hillly slopes&nbsp;chopper chopping tools predominent , some handaxes &amp; cleaver with&nbsp;<strong><u>pebble butt<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(occasionally)stratigraphy difficult &#8211; high rainfall<\/td><\/tr><tr><td rowspan=\"4\">Peninsular&nbsp; Region&nbsp;tropical &amp; heavy rainfall<\/td><td><strong>Madrasian Industry<\/strong>&nbsp;(most imp after Soan valley)from&nbsp;<strong><u>Kortalayer valley<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;in chingleput district by&nbsp;<strong><u>Krishnaswami<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(1938)AN(Treasure-house of LP- variety &amp; abundance )Chingleput&nbsp;NagarjunakondaKareumpudiKarnataka&nbsp;MalprabhaGhatprabha&nbsp;Tungbhadra&nbsp;<\/td><td>heavy preponderance of handaxes &amp; cleavers, ; asymmetrical Abbevillian types prepared by Primary flaking&nbsp;more sophisticated &amp; neatly made&nbsp;than soan valley<strong><u>H.d Sankalia<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;indicated&nbsp;+nce of waist&nbsp;on both lateral edge &#8211; indicative of hafting tools &#8211; if substantiatd &#8211; perhabs earliest instance in&nbsp; worldA unique flaking was discovered which named by&nbsp;<strong><u>Franscois Border<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;as&nbsp;<strong>Para-levalloise<\/strong>first preparation of core &amp; then delivering a flaking blow&nbsp;inspiration from levalloiselater some pebbles &amp; flake tools also from&nbsp;<strong><u>Gudiyam caves&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>One pecularity about industries in&nbsp;<strong><u>Kr<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; paucity of bebble tools compared to AP<strong>Attirampakkam<\/strong>&nbsp;(AP)&nbsp;RB Foote&nbsp;2011, oldest tool 1.5 mya by BC Pune &amp; Madras University&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>AN (other Sites )<\/td><td><strong><u>Gundlakamma River<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Kurnool District&nbsp;<strong><u>Zeuner<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;assisted by&nbsp;<strong><u>KV Soundara Rajan<\/u><\/strong>large variety of Abeevillo-Acheulian handaxes, cleavers, clactonian &amp; levalbsean flakes&nbsp;<strong><u>Palleru<\/u><\/strong>-Prakasam District&nbsp;by&nbsp;<strong><u>Madhusudhana Rao<\/u><\/strong>rich with handaxes, cleavers, knives&nbsp;<strong><u>Maratipalam &amp; Chintalapalam<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Near Tirupati &#8211;&nbsp;by Remi REddy&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Karnataka (other) &#8211;&nbsp;<strong><u>Hungsi Indusrty<\/u><\/strong>in gulbarga district&nbsp;&nbsp;by Padayya &#8211; clamis it as primary site<\/td><td>2 pecularities&nbsp;remarkable freshness of tools&nbsp;high concentration of arifacts&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Maharashtra<\/td><td><strong><u>Chekri &#8211; Nevasa<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;in Admadnagar,&nbsp;By&nbsp;<strong><u>Gudrun &#8211; Comivus<\/u><\/strong>freshness of tools&nbsp;total absence of flake tools&nbsp;which are ohterwise largely present in Upper Achealian industry &#8211; hence Late Acheulian&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Sites in Europe&nbsp;&#8211; Ambrona, Terra amata, Escala&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Conclusion&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tentatively, LP in India can be accepted as emerging around early&nbsp;<strong>upper Pleistocene<\/strong>. Even this late beginning was not universal for whole continent, like western zone that might have been site of late colonisation. Central region (Narmada, Mahanadi, krishna) was most densely populated. Abbevillian types purely intruded into Acheulian type. Acheulian type in India has to be much younger than of France. Estimate of this range from .1mya to 60,k years.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>lived near source of water &amp; raw materials (mainly stone) source &amp; peripheries of Forests(hunting) &#8211; imp determining ; not high altitude or dense forests&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Middle Palaeolithic (0.1 mya &#8211; 40k)<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p>recognised as independent cultural phase only after 1960- earlier not b\/c of absence of proper stratigraphic evidences&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>1956<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;<strong><u>Prof. Sankalia<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;demonstrated&nbsp;<strong><u>flake tools<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;in depositions of&nbsp;<strong>Pravara river near Nevasa,&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>incidentally most imp site in MH region &amp; spl river valley of Godavari &amp; tributaries&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Climate&nbsp;&#8211; Beginning of&nbsp;<strong>Warm<\/strong>&nbsp;Glacial (europe)&nbsp;, best understood in europe during&nbsp;<strong>Mousterian times&nbsp;<\/strong>, adaptation to the cold may have included anatomical change (Larger nose of Neanderthals&nbsp;&#8211; helped to bear bitterly cold )<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Time Period&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;(.1mya-40,k ) &amp;&nbsp;Middle Pleistocene to upper Pleistocene epoch&nbsp;&#8211; late upper Pleistocene (in India)&nbsp; :&nbsp;<strong>Mousterian in Europe lasted only 40k to 60k.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Human Species&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>Homo Neanderthal Man<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Technology&nbsp;-flake culture&nbsp;<strong>Mousterian (Major)Flake technology<\/strong>&nbsp;&amp; also Percussion tech of lP continued ; flakes made by following&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>Simple controlled tech of&nbsp;<strong><u>Step flaking<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Pressure flaking or Levellosian Tech (careful preparation of the core , so that flakes could be struck in pre-shaped forms. &#8211; longer sharper cutting edge than previous methods&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>5 Distinct general tool tradition in Mousterian France&nbsp;Mousterian artifacts are often composite tools, having several parts&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong><u>Typical Mousterian Assemblages<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; rarely contain hand axes , mostly scrapers &amp; points made with care<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Quina Ferrassie (or Chrentian) Assembages<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; dominated by scrapers , some for extremely specialised func.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Denticulate Mousterian Assemblages<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; rich in fine toothed (or deniculate ) tools. But hand axes, points &amp; scrapers are either -nt or poor quality&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Mousterian of the Acheulean Tradition<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;-evolves from earlier (type A &#8211; numerous hand axes &amp; varied flake fools,) to later (type B- few hand axes or scrapers but&nbsp;many denticulates or knives)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Micoquian Tradition<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; lance shaped hand axes, often with concave edges &amp; thick bases.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>Some archeologist see them as the product of a single culture occupying varying env. &amp; carrying on different activities.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Material &#8211;&nbsp;change of raw material ; smooth &amp; bright rocks such as&nbsp;<strong>flint<\/strong>&nbsp;to lesser extent&nbsp;<strong>Jasper &amp; chalcedony&nbsp;<\/strong>, occasionally fine grained quartzite&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Type&nbsp;&#8211; Flakes tools so smaller &amp; lighter&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/727b57b4-67ad-f888-9883-4bbd4753ff3d\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Pointers ( in La-Mausterian (France) points are in&nbsp;<strong>leaf shape<\/strong>)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>scrapers<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Borers&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>handaxe, cleaver along with some chopper-chopping tools &amp; some blades&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>presence of scrapes &#038; borers disturbing &#8211; why these in food gathering economy\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>HD Sankalia<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; perhaps these used in fabricating some other tools made up of wood, bone &amp; horn etc &#8211; non lithic material- not survived&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Socio-Cultural<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>food gather &amp; Hunter &amp; increased efficiency due to lighter &amp; sharper tool kit&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Main hunting animal reindeer \u2192&nbsp; indicate cold climates&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>large animal hunting &#8211; group coordination essential &#8211; later led to kinship<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Still dependent on nature but had acquired knowledge of fire ( evidence in India are not as strong as in Europe)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>division of labor based on age &amp; sex<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>group living &#8211; highly&nbsp;<strong>egalitarian society<\/strong>&nbsp;with least amount of profession &#8211; Band org most common&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>caves &amp; rock shelters&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>along banks of river &amp; streams (Now systematically used for dwelling for first time, sometime on semi permanent bases)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Cannibalism<\/strong>&#8211; ex.&nbsp;<strong>Mt carnol cave Art<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Evidence of earliest oranamental objects from Mousterian groups&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Belief in supernatural power&nbsp;<\/strong>eg. cave bear skulls&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Ritual Burial&nbsp;<\/strong>: Presence of flowers &amp; tools in burials ex in&nbsp;<strong>Shanidar (Iraq)<\/strong>&nbsp;, In Le Moustier France , young buried with animal bones &amp; stone tools. In&nbsp;<strong>La caapelle-au Saints&nbsp;<\/strong>in a small grave carved out of the rocky floor surrounded with bits of quartz, Jasper &amp; red ochre. (Red may be life giving connotations of blood)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>ML art studied by&nbsp;<strong>Mishra in Bhimbetka&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Feature of Indian Middle Palaeolithic&nbsp;<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>lack of primary sites &#8211; don\u2019t enable reconstruct past<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Distinctiveness of different industries&nbsp;&#8211; localisation &amp; concn of evidence &#8211; referred as&nbsp;<strong><u>Central &amp; Deccan Indian Phenomenon<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>complete change of raw material- utilised by diffusionistic theoreticians &#8211; however neither universal over subcontinent nor uniform to particular material&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Dominance of flake tools<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; which emerged in Lp<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mode of development &#8211; certain industries were influenced by outside culture, while others were developed locally ex.\n<ul>\n<li>Indian Desert zone &#8211; similar &#8211; Mousterian Afganistan ; Mh &amp; KN come close to it as adopted levalloise&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>kurnool to 36 gh &#8211; locally developed&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Narmada 2 distinct varieties &#8211; means habitat by 2 different groups\n<ol>\n<li>Bhimbetka &#8211; Mousteroid Varieties &#8211; without changing raw material&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Shivna to Damoh &#8211; variety with change in raw material, but containing handaxes, cleaver&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>composition of tool kit &#8211; scraper &amp; borer dominates&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>typological spectrum &#8211; from diverse sites\n<ul>\n<li>side scrapers of large variety&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>sharp points with triangular&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>borers with thick &amp; sturdy body which Sankalia termed as \u2018scraper cum borers\u2019 ( borer showing broad &amp; open notch)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>retouched blades, burins &amp; end scrappers&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>handaxes, cleavers, choppers, chopping tools&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>Region&nbsp;<\/td><td>Sites<\/td><td>Characteristics&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>International<\/td><td>France&nbsp;La-Chappel Aux&nbsp;La- QuinaSpine&nbsp;Pasiega&nbsp;Palatine&nbsp;Mt Carmel&nbsp;IraqShanidar&nbsp;<\/td><td>Points in shape of leafs&nbsp;64000 old paintings (recently discovered worlds oldest painting)&nbsp;Cave art indicating cannibalism&nbsp;flowers in burials&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>North India&nbsp;<\/td><td>Soan Valley&nbsp;Belan Valley, Allahabad, UP<\/td><td>Thin, slender &amp; more blades like clactonian flake toolsflake tools, hand axes, clevers &amp; chopping tools<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Western India&nbsp;<\/td><td>Luni Industry by V.N Mishra&nbsp;<\/td><td>flake tools borers &amp; pointsvery high quality tools which are repeatedly reworked flakes&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Central Region<\/td><td><strong>Nevasian Cultural<\/strong>&nbsp;complex by Sankalia in MH &amp; KN&nbsp;Suregoan (MH)&nbsp;MP &amp; Bundelkhand&nbsp;best representation along , Narmada, Betwa, Shivna, Chambal&nbsp;Bimbetka (Vindhya MP) &#8211; VN Mishra36 ghar &amp; chota Nagpur&nbsp;Bhegaghat &#8211; Sheila Misra (1993) &#8211; Narmada Near Jabalpur&nbsp;<\/td><td>Most rich&nbsp;<strong>Levalloise<\/strong>&nbsp;tech &#8211; well marked&nbsp;flake tools, blades, boles, thin leaf poin&nbsp;small hand axe made on chert , clevers, choppers, flint tools,&nbsp; flake tools ( scraper representative)&nbsp;levalloise tech well marked but not as NevadaRock shelters\/caves with largest no. of cave paintings in world (500 out of 700)&nbsp;5 layer ML &amp; 4th UP of IIF23lose identity &amp; merges with upper P.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>South India<\/td><td>AP &#8211; don\u2019t record clear stratigraphic context&nbsp;Renigunta, Hiddalore, Nagarjunkonda (AP)Kurnool by Cammidae&nbsp;Gudain (TN)&nbsp;Attripakam&nbsp;<\/td><td>Quartzite material&nbsp;extensive use of&nbsp;<strong>cylinders hammer tech&nbsp;<\/strong>Round scrapers, burin most common&nbsp;Cave living&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Eastern India&nbsp;<\/td><td>Purelia (WB)&nbsp;Singhbhum (Bihar)&nbsp;<\/td><td>Specially flake tools, scrapers, borers &amp; burins&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Upper Palaeolithic&nbsp;<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p>climate&nbsp;&#8211; Comparatively warm climate (cold climate)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Time Period&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;(36k-9k &#8211; 3% of lP ) &amp;&nbsp; upper Pleistocene &#8211;&nbsp;<strong>last phase of Great ice age<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; imp fact drawn &#8211; in journey of cultural evolution, the more man advanced, the less is duration of coming cultural phase of increasingly imp &amp; radical cultural achievements&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Human Species&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>Homo spaiens<\/strong>&nbsp;(<strong>cromagnum<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; named after site in France)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>soon slowly differentiate culturally &amp; biologically -&gt; different race with different culture<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Technology&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp; (best known sequence exist in Europe spl France)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>Pressure flaking or Levellosian Tech&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Transverse &amp; longitudinal cutting&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>lateral chipping&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Material &#8211;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Lithic&nbsp; stone &#8211; Jasper &amp; chalcedony , occasionally fine grained quartzite&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Non lithic- bone, ivory, horn etc (specially by Mousterian)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Type&nbsp;&#8211; harpoons, arrow head, bone owl &amp; blades (blade &amp; burins culture) Blade Technology (Rich in blades&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Blades &#8211; long, thin flakes with parallel sides. Blades have been produced by 3 different ways &#8211;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>Hammering a chisel like instrument against a stone that was steadied on top of large rock<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Punching vertical slices out of a prepared rock with a long pointed tool steadied against the toolmaker\u2019s chest.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Tradition stone against stone percussion flaking.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>Blades : predictable &amp; standardised size &#8211; little retouching to made specialised tool , which are borers, burins (chisel groves), end scrapers (sharped on both side rather than one side (as in Mousterian side scrapers)), Notched blades, backed blades (one end dull &amp; other sharpened)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Bow &amp; arrow for first time in this period&nbsp;<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/a33b6c5d-8699-97fe-1141-f470179029e4\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Tradition of Upper Palaeolithic in Europe<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong><u>Perigordian or Chantelperron&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>In France, deposits show a gradual transition from Mousterian to Perigordian Industries&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>existed from 35kto 18K,&nbsp; Probably evolved from Mousterian of Acheulean tradition<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mixture of Mousterian + Levalloisian +Blade culture&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Tools\n<ul>\n<li>Early Perigordian Tools &#8211; Curved pointed blades with blunt back (Chatelperton points ) &#8211; Curved blades&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Late Perigordian Tools &#8211; Straight sided&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Aurignacian (Blade Burin Culture)&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Lated from 33k to 25k &#8211; About the same time of Perigordian (but after 25 k only Perigordian existed)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Origins &amp; spread still mystery , but some suspect may have been introduced from Middle East&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Great use of blades&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Beginning ofmicroliths&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bow tool<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ornaments<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Spearhead bow&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Gravathian Tradition (22k to 18k)<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0( As acc to vivek Bhasme earlier cultures were not simultaneous, but one after another\n<ul>\n<li>Marked by use of blunt black Ionies&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bone + Ivory pins&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ornaments of bone, ivory, wood, stone<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Use of bone, ivory, stone for figurines&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Figurines : Female with eanlarged buttocks, breast, stomach (fertility). It shows symbolism.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Solutrean Tradition (18k-16k)<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>After 18k the Late Perigordian was replaced in France by short lived&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Origin is still mysterious : may be form some holdover from some Mousterian tradition which continued to evolved into isolation before spread across a limited range of Europe; also vanished mysteriously as had appeared&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Flint working tech<\/strong>&nbsp;advanced to peak&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>magnificent&nbsp;<strong>laurel leaf blades&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sharpened bone needle with pierced eye at one end &#8211;&nbsp;<strong>sewing skins&nbsp;<\/strong>into some type of clothing&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bow &amp; arrow&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Megdalenian Tradition (16k -10k)&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Around 10k replaced by Mesolithic Period<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bone &amp; horn tools<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Stone-long blade prismatic in cross section with parallel side.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Jevellian points&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Machine &#8211;&nbsp;<strong>spear thrower&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>Socio-Cultural &amp; Major Developments<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Demise of Neanderthal &amp; appearance of modern man&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>expansion of human into most of the worlds inhabited area including the New&nbsp;<strong>world &amp; Australia&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Division of labor emerged based on age &amp; sex with increasing complexity&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Prominent Palaeolithic Art<\/strong>&nbsp;(cave + home)&nbsp; -sudden &amp; widespread appearance of figurines (spl female) &amp; other artifacts reflecting art &amp; rituals &#8211; give idea of development of human imagination&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Ritual Burials<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; rites &amp; rituals&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>lived in&nbsp;<strong>rock shelters&nbsp;<\/strong>due to cold climate (more settled existence &amp; larger group size probably c\/a for some form of political authority. &#8211; Europe evi-some buried with great ceremony than other -&gt; leadership role -influence other through the force of their personalities.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>decided step -&gt;&nbsp;<strong>kinship organisation&nbsp;<\/strong>(DK Bhattacharya, ibid)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>appearance of large no. of bone tools including eye needles, harpoons &amp; other fishing tools<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>early sign of religion can extracted from fact that paintings started appearing deep inside cave\u00a0 ex. Bagor river excavation found shrine type sand str. of a circular platform consisting of concentric triangle which are believed to be worshipped.\n<ul>\n<li>In France &amp; Spain, engraved bone &amp; antler implements, low relief clay sculptures, carved statuettes, cave drawings, &amp; multicoloured paintings reached peak of sophistication during Magdalenian&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Eur &#8211; Frequent evidence of forest fire &#8211; may be intentional -&gt; easier to sight &amp; trap large games or productivity of land for fruits like berries&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Changes mainly found in European UP &amp; Indian can\u2019t compared with it as independent &amp; clearly distinct cultural stage &#8211; due to scanty or total absence of subtype specialisation like bisque burin or Noailles burins (Bhattacharya) &amp; bone &amp; art, which form major characters tics in europe, are largely absent in India&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Region&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Sites<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Characteristics&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>International<\/td><td>France (Dordonge Valley)La-AurognaeLa-MagnaleneSolutreGermany,Spain&nbsp;<\/td><td>Blade &amp; Burnie cultureEngrawing non-lithic tools&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>North India<\/td><td>Belan Vally (Allahbad -UP)Basauli &amp; Lakhania (UP)&nbsp;<\/td><td>By GR SharmaTools&nbsp;female figurine curved on bone(first of its type from IUP, similar fingurins kn as&nbsp;<strong>Venus&nbsp;<\/strong>found European UP&nbsp;Rock Shelters with paintings&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Central India<\/td><td>Bhimbetka (MP)Bagor (MP)HoShangabad &amp; Wainganga<\/td><td>Burins made on thick blade flak tols &amp; differnet types of scraper found&nbsp;Cave III F-23 continuty from LP to UPcave paintings&nbsp;Habitation site with worshipping place (Shrine)&nbsp;Circular platform of sand stone blocks which as concentric triangles at centresimilar stones are used even today by locals to worship mother goddess.Blade &amp; Burin Industries&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Western India<\/td><td>Borivili &amp; KondviliJalagaonBarod&nbsp;<\/td><td>Blade &amp; burin industryearlier objects of ornaments namel engraved ostrich egg shell fragments&nbsp;Blades &amp; burins&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>South India<\/td><td>Renigunta , Chittor , APMuchchatta Chintamanu Gavi &#8211; Kurnool -AP&nbsp;Kurnool, Vemula (Kedapa)<\/td><td>by M.L.K Murthy &#8211;&nbsp;large no. of blade &#8211; &gt; entirely based on blade tool manf &#8211; representative tools o UPprepared on fine grained olive green quartzite but of late stone age on milky quartzakin to generalized EAst-Gravettian of Central Europeby Murthy &#8211; a special place&nbsp;b\/c first bone tool (90% of all)&nbsp;made on bone, horns &amp; other non lithich material are &#8211; scrapers, chisels, orers, barbs &amp; spatulaanimals like Antilope, Bublus, felix were used to acquire bonesAcc. to&nbsp;Sankalia&nbsp;&#8211; these bones show evidence of&nbsp;Grove &amp; Splinter techBlade &amp; burin industries&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>East India<\/td><td>Singbhum (JH)<\/td><td>Tools&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Conclusion &#8211; upper Palaeolithic is very late phenomenon in India. However, except certain types of tools, no major variations can be reported from European counterpart&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Migration to New World&nbsp;&#8211; except bitterly cold climate, Siberia was probably fairly attractive to Stone Age hunters. Adjusted to cold by wearing warm, fitted clothing &amp; shoes &amp; large heated dwellings. -&gt; in upper Palaeolithic due to adaptation, population increased beyond the ability of area -&gt; about 30k group started to migrate into previously untapped ecosystem of Beringia, the land mass that connected Siberia &amp; western Alaska. Which was temporarily exposed as expanding glaciers trapped normally circulating water as ice &amp; caused sea levels to drop. These migrations were cutoff about 10,000 years as the last glacial maximum ended &amp; sea level rose, covering land bridge. (Reached USA in around 18k &amp; SA around 16k)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Uniqueness of Indian Palaeolithic&nbsp;<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>nowhere in the world chopper&nbsp; chopping tools of the pebbles in the hand X cleavers have been found together except India eg.&nbsp;<strong>Chaubtra of Soan valley<\/strong>&nbsp;(Uniqueness of Soan Culture) &#8211; indicative of two population together&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Geographically spread is widest in India North(Soan) to south(madrasian) &amp; east (Juliana) to west (Didwana, Nevasa)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Comparatively late in appearance as compare to the world Palaeolithic ( late by .5 my)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Comparatively more culturally diverse and regional variation<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Continue tea of cultures are found simultaneously example Bhimbetka<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>both&nbsp;<strong>glacial (Soan)&nbsp;<\/strong>and&nbsp;<strong>pluvial (Madrasian)&nbsp;<\/strong>sites are found&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Most of the tools found or surface tool who is chatting is difficult hence dating is done on the basis of tool type and technology<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Vast cultural diversity eg. Soan (chopper chopping culture) &amp; madrasian (Hand axe, cleaver culture) Also at the same time comparative details between the two sitse are present<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Palaeolithic art of the upper Palaeolithic is unique feature of Indian Palaeolithic&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Fossils only Narmada Man<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Upper Palaeolithic: bone tools are only found at one site eg. Machltal Chintamani Gavi<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Highly acidic soil most of the fossil evidence are not found<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Mesolithic&nbsp;<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p>climate&nbsp;&#8211; Earliest holocene epoch, dry period started (so, melting of ice -&gt; formation of river &amp; opened huge tracks of land for forest dev. ), drastic change in ecology, game rich tundra turned into temperate forest&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Time Period&nbsp;&#8211; (10k-4k )transition b\/w UP &amp; Neolithic (i.e beginning of agri-but it didn&#8217;t begin everywhere at same time so it expands &amp; shrinks)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Human Species&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>Early Homo spaiens<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Technology&nbsp;&#8211; Mircrolithic (<strong>1-8cm<\/strong>) blades detacted by&nbsp;<strong>pressure flaking from cylinderical cores&nbsp;<\/strong>: main identification&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Indirect flaking&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Micro-burine tech<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/4f4a96ac-1d76-02fb-15cd-75cab3bb44af\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>composite tools hafted in wood or bow<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>tools are geometrical &amp; non geometrical in shape<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Basic principle of shading the mass drastically &#8211; invention of the bow &amp; arrow attributed to this principle&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Reason of evolution of microliths &#8211; fishing &amp; fowling replaced large mammal hunting<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Material &#8211;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>stone material &#8211; Heamatite, chalcedony, chert, agate, carnelian &amp; occasionally quartz&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>wood fossile &#8211; Birbanpur&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bones &#8211; shoulders of rhinocerous, antlers, ivory (antlers are rarely used in Indian Mesolithci)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Haematite rubed &amp; spheriacal stone balls used as sling bolas &#8211; imp feature&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Type&nbsp;&#8211;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Geometrical Microliths such lunates, triangles, semi-triangles, trapezes, roundish, rectangular or square scrapers&nbsp;<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"812px\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/322f5baf-109e-855b-6583-61e4a7a4b29e\"><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Handaxes completely absent&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Socio-Cultural &amp; Major Developments&nbsp;: climate started to change which is reflected in change in socio-cultural life. &#8211; Some see it as cultural degeneration when compared with UP &#8211; no representational art as evidence ; In new forest ecosystem the density of animals were less than tundra -&gt; caused people to live &amp; hunt in smaller social groups or bands, &amp; to use new weapons &amp; tools ; &amp; each source of food was exploited more fully ( In Near East, Mexico &amp; probably china Mesolithic adaptation leads to domestication of plants &amp; animals ; also fishing along with hunting , beginning of food production mark its end, so vary in various parts&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Hunting entails man to change took kit -&gt; adaptaion of&nbsp;<strong>microliths<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Domestification<\/strong>&nbsp;of animals &#8211; base for rise agri. in neoliberal&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>dominance of&nbsp;<strong>non lithic tools<\/strong>&nbsp;ex.&nbsp;<strong>Sholder blade of Rhino at&nbsp;<u>Langhnaj&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>clothing emerged from skin of animals&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>evidence of&nbsp;<strong>partial sedentism<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Wind breaker (Bagor &amp; bhimbhatka), Wind screen (Langhnaj), Rock Shelters(Bhimbetka)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>community cooking (<\/strong>in SNR &#8211; living floor of 5*4 m with 4 post holes in 4 corners)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>concrete from river bed used for pave the living floor<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>evidence of pottery<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; wheel made &#8211; Bagor &amp; Bhimbetka&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Evidence Human creativity &amp; imagination (agony or ecastacy) &#8211; Mesolithic art &#8211; cave art depicting various facets of human life like hunting., fishing, inter group rivalry &amp; human agression. (Mirzapur, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh &#8211; i.e mainly MP)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Use of beads &amp; ornaments<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; belief in afterlife&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Evidences of intergroup fightings ; from microlith in rib of skelton in SNR&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>microliths can only be used as composite tools &#8211; hafted in wood or bovine jasw &#8211; evidence from abroad not from india<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mesolithic Man started making Pots\n<ul>\n<li><strong>First pot (handmade) in world &#8211; Chopani Mando (UP)<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Jadeite,&nbsp;<\/strong>may have been brought from China. Found in&nbsp;<strong>Daojali Hading&nbsp;<\/strong>near Brahmputra Valley<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The systematic &amp; scientific work on the mesolithic was started only by Sankalia&#8217;s excavation at langhnaj in Gj. in early 40s. Even most of the microliths traces western origin through corridors like Tharo hill in sindh or Quetta valley near Rawalpindi in Pak. &#8211; but not enough to prove it as corridor.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Region&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Sites&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Characteristics&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td rowspan=\"3\">Western India<\/td><td><strong>Langhnaj<\/strong>, Mehsana District GJ, along the western bank of Sabarmati River&nbsp;<\/td><td>By H.D Sankalia&nbsp;dated around 2040 +110 BC kn by Radio dating of Phase I &amp; II&nbsp;Sankalia identified 2 main layers along 3 distinct culural phases ; Phase 1 include&nbsp;Mircoliths, burials, pot shreds, animal bones&nbsp;&nbsp;Rhino shoulder blade ; used as anvil for manufacturing microlithsA tangled iron arrow head, stone bead, &amp; some fragments of stone quern are other cultural materials&nbsp;Associated with microliths occurs a soft hematite piece &amp; several hammer stones&nbsp;Burials&nbsp;14 burials in crouching posture with some tools as part of burial ceremonycuts on forehead &#8211; beliefe in existance of&nbsp;<strong>cannibalism<\/strong>these skelton generated a lot of controversy about racial affinities of people&nbsp;<strong>contemporary of Harappan<\/strong>&nbsp;(100-200 km &#8211; flow blown stellment)&nbsp;unfari trade deal&nbsp;it proves rigit, cut &amp; dried cultural chronologies can be misleading&nbsp;Determining role near urban settlement of hunting gatherings&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Baghor<\/strong>On river Kothari near Bhilwara town&nbsp;locally name &#8211; Mahasati Mound&nbsp;show character of repeated reoccupation until medieval periodimp &amp; extensive site&nbsp;best studied in subcontinent acc. to AGrawal, ibid&nbsp;imp c. perfect symmetry of tools from &amp; high standard of craftsmanship&nbsp;<\/td><td>By&nbsp;<strong>Mishra<\/strong>&nbsp;in 1967 &#8211; identified 3 phase RD &#8211; 4600 BCAnimal remains &amp; microlithcopper tools, pottery, microliths&nbsp;iron implements, wheel made, pot shreds&nbsp;Domestication of animals : 80% animals remains of domesticated&nbsp;stone paved floor&nbsp;Tools&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;<strong>lithic Ind. richest in world &amp; finest<\/strong>&nbsp;(2cm -1.5cm) &#8211; blunted black blades, trapezes, crescent, points etc&nbsp;Flakes type (scrapers or burins) &#8211; totally-ve&nbsp;main material &#8211; quartz &amp; chertmass P microblades-&gt; various microlithic formsBurials&nbsp;&#8211; +nce of grave good like earthen vessels, ornaments, metal&nbsp;in first phase &#8211; body laid extended position- head towards westlater &#8211; drastic change &#8211; flexed position- head towards east&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Tilwara (Western most) Barner District RJ&nbsp;<\/td><td>By V.N Misra in 1971 &amp; noted 2 distict phasesOlder phase &#8211; Mesolithic SettlementYounger Phase &#8211; with iron glass heads, wheel made pottery&nbsp;Trapeze, Lunates, Points, parrlel sided blades, fluted coresFire hearths, charred bones &amp; circular arrangment of stones<\/td><\/tr><tr><td rowspan=\"3\">North India<\/td><td><strong>Sarai Nahar Rai&nbsp;<\/strong>(Allahabad- Pratapgarh UP)Early alluvial spread of Ganga&nbsp;<\/td><td>By&nbsp;<strong>GR sharma&nbsp;<\/strong>fire hearth with charred bones near them&nbsp;microlithis &#8211; trapezoid, points, crescents, lunates &amp; trianges&nbsp;community cooking&nbsp; : living floor of 5*4 m with 4 post holes in 4 corners &#8211;&nbsp;pre- pottery culture : complete absence of pottery&nbsp;Faunal remains: domestication of animals seen (remains of goat, Buffalo, cattle etc)&nbsp;inter group fight &#8211; microliths embeded in ribs one skeleton&nbsp;Burrials inside habitation (+nce of hearth) &#8211; head towards west with forearms diagonally placed across abdomen<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Mirzapur (last Vindhyas limit)&nbsp;<\/td><td>Rock paintings&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Dam Dama &amp; Mahadaha (Pratapgarh UP)<\/td><td>Bone tools,&nbsp;human burials &amp; skeletal remains &#8211; includes bangles, pendants, stone fragments&nbsp;Microliths &#8211; prepottery &amp; geometric&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td rowspan=\"2\">Central India<\/td><td>Bimbetka<\/td><td>Out of 8 layers top 3 belongs to Mesolithic&nbsp; dates roughly at 5000 BC&nbsp;microliths in floor &#8211; much larger size&nbsp;paintings on wells &amp; ceiling&nbsp;contains burials- but extremely fragmented&nbsp;shift of raw material to chalcedony&nbsp;devoid of any pottery&nbsp;wind shield or screen near mouth of cave (ecological adaptation)&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Adamgarh, Near Hoshangabad<\/td><td>Microliths(geometric but bit cruder) such as lunates, blades, scraper, borer etc&nbsp;Pottery remains found&nbsp;Domestication of animals found (dog, Buffalo, goat etc)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td rowspan=\"3\">Eastern India<\/td><td>Birbhan pur , WBon river damaodar&nbsp;<\/td><td>By BB lal in 1957&nbsp;post holes fro covering pits&nbsp;no evidence of burials, hearth , bonesindustry seems archaic as big flakes &amp; blade tool dominates&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Kuchai&nbsp;<\/td><td>reported microlithic horizon without any ceramics&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Burdwan, Bankura &amp; Purulia&nbsp;<\/td><td>Microliths found in association wtih black &amp; red ware pottery , ring stones or even iron slags&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td rowspan=\"2\">South Indiageometrical elements are either absent or very minor&nbsp;&nbsp;Quartz main material&nbsp;allowed only a crude blade tech.<\/td><td>Teri (TN) &#8211; along fossilized sand dunes&nbsp;<\/td><td>First by&nbsp;<strong>Robbert foote<\/strong>&nbsp;-&gt; Aiyappan then Zeuner made detailed report&nbsp;chalcedony, quartz &amp; dossile wood&nbsp;in typologicaly sense&nbsp; &#8211; most primitve features&nbsp;&nbsp;close resemblance with Sri Lankan microliths (Bandarawela sites) &#8211; tradition of bifacially pressure flaked points&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Sanganakallu (KN)Biggest occurance of microlithic(slender &amp; long)&nbsp; from KN&nbsp;<\/td><td>By Subbarao in 1949 &amp; Sankalia in 65-66microliths like flakes (both utilized &amp; retouched )blades arre not recovered at all&nbsp;Radio carbon date estimates around 3500 BC&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>It is not clear whether microliths were the result of some external influence or developed out of earlier stone industries. The prolific distribution of the industry not only in india, but all over the world in Europe, Africa &amp; Asia points to some cultural link.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>It si also held by some scholers that probably a new race of people from Africa entereed India with these implements.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Contribution of Mesolithic to Rise of Neolithic&nbsp;<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>early domestication of the animals in the plant in the later period -&gt; full fledged in Neo -&gt; surplus&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>M. adaptation such as sedentism, population size &amp; use of plant food &#8211; evidence of transition to agri<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Climate change from ice to dry continued &#8211; vast land<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Substantial settlement str. Of&nbsp;<strong>Baghor<\/strong>&nbsp;(meso) evoluted into semi or permanent in neo<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Perfection of tools tech &amp;&nbsp; craftsmanship of Mesolithic later got developed and help me Neolithic&nbsp; man to clear extensive track forest<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Pottery making started in later period of Mizo lithic which later become the hallmark of new lithic Revolution<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Wild seed collection practice of the Mesolithic are precursor stage for domestication of the plant &amp; agriculture<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Mesolithic in North America<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; divided into 2 parts&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>desert tradition-arid western region (9k &#8211; until European contact) &amp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Archaic tradition &#8211; eastern woodland (9k -4\/3k) &#8211; env. Like Europe &#8211; semi nomadic like desert t. But later due to great wealth of resources &#8211; left wandering for more selected existence&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>In Europe &amp; In North America north of Mexico , Mesolithic did\u2019t lead to the independent development of agriculture . May be plant &amp; animals that could be domesticated were absent there. In addition, the population density never have been so high as to make food production necessary.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Neolithic&nbsp;<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p>mark great tech &amp; economic change in society than earlier-&nbsp;<strong>First Revolution (food gathers to food producers) in Mankind by V.G Childe&nbsp;;<\/strong>&nbsp;He termed it&nbsp;<strong><u>Neolithic Revolution<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;was coined in his&nbsp;<strong><u>1936<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;book&nbsp;<strong><u>Man Makes Himself.<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>L.H. Morgan&nbsp;described it as&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong><u>Primitive Communism<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;b\/c source of production were social\/community owned -&gt; no private property&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Chief four features of Neolithic<\/em>&nbsp;: (1)&nbsp;Agriculture&nbsp;Practice (2)&nbsp;Domestication&nbsp;of animals (3)&nbsp;Polishing Stone&nbsp;tools (4)&nbsp;Pottery Manufac&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Agri due to some combination of population pressure, ecological chnage &amp; population movement , first in Near east region&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Why ?&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; Some theories about development of agriculture&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Childe\u2019s Oasis Model &#8211;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>in&nbsp;<strong>New Light on the Most Ancient East (1952)<\/strong>&nbsp;by V. Gordon Childe &#8211;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>series of hypothesis about force of climate crisis leading to domestication of animal &amp; plants, since killing them would have left the oasis with no source of food.&nbsp; &#8211;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>During close of pleistocene drying of Mediterranean climate -&gt; grassland turned into desert, dotted with oases. -&gt; become concentrated (people, animal &amp; plant)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Unsupported&nbsp; &#8211; archeological data don\u2019t support&nbsp; &amp; logically unsound by Braidwood (1967) why didn\u2019t happened during intergalactic phases ?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Braidwood\u2019s Nuclear Zone Theory &#8211;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>culturally receptive to domestication (as in-depth knowledge of env. )&nbsp; &amp; presence of nuclear zone ( area rich in domesticitionalble animals &amp; plant)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>happed only in neolithic b\/c earlier people were not culturally ready (as it grown gradually)&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Population Models &#8211;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>growth of population beyond the land\u2019s ability to support the human biomass. ( in case on impossibility of emigration &#8211; William sanders &amp; Barbara Prince) ex&nbsp;<strong>Tehuacan Valley of Mexico<\/strong>, geographical circumscription&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>For some climate change reduced food supply (Lewis Binford)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Population growth, forced change in tech &amp; subsistence &#8211; Mark Cohen &#8211; Old world &amp; North &amp; S America&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>This led to emergence of&nbsp;Village communities&nbsp;based on sedentary life. Beginning of settlement at&nbsp;<strong>Mehrgharh<\/strong>&nbsp;(about 8000 years ago.)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Koldihwa<\/strong>&#8211;&nbsp;First evidence of&nbsp;<strong>rice<\/strong>&nbsp;in world.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Maherghar<\/strong>\u00a0(Pakistan) :\u00a0First to take up agriculture in Indian subcontinent\n<ul>\n<li>Mehrgarh people&nbsp;invented cotton , potter wheels first time in world,<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The discovery of tools and implements of Neolithic age was made by&nbsp;<strong>Le Mesurier<\/strong>&nbsp;in Uttar Pradesh in 1860.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>The term \u2018Neolithic\u2019 was coined&nbsp;<strong>Sir John Lubbock&nbsp;<\/strong>in his book \u201c<strong>Prehistoric Teme<\/strong>\u201d which was first published in 1865<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>V. Gardon Childe<\/strong>&nbsp;was the first who defined the&nbsp;<strong>Neolithic-Chalcolithis Culture<\/strong>&nbsp;as a&nbsp;<strong>self-suffient food economy<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>climate&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp; As Post Glacial Period so warm &amp; dry -&gt; expense of land open to vegetation but covered with forests-&gt; to clean polished tools (wouldn\u2019t remain struck)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Time Period&nbsp;&#8211; Neolithic age&nbsp;Began&nbsp;<strong>7000 BC&nbsp;<\/strong>but Neolithic settlement in Indian subcontinent is not older than&nbsp;<strong>4000Bc<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Human Species&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp; Homo spaiens sapiens&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Technology&nbsp;&#8211; Grinding &amp; polishing of stone tools ; large brain enabled&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/1850f0a2-902f-e7d3-1d6b-990733900c45\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Material &#8211;&nbsp;(Same as Mesolithic)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>stone &amp; organic material &amp; later included bone, wood &amp; antlers&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Type&nbsp;&#8211; Polished axe, adze, chisel, saddle quern of Mild Stone, Ring stone, grinder, stone saw, muller&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/43ddb721-c3d4-4634-a7d3-c03899d73512\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Socio-Cultural &amp; Major Developments(Seq)&nbsp;revolution in sociocultural life following manner<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Emergence of ground &amp; polished tools&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>cleaning for Forest &amp; jungle by involvement of labor&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cultivation &amp; domestication of Animals (Energy Revolution- if used in agri as labor) &#8211; Milk, cheese, butter, egg )&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>surplus of grains -&gt; brought Pottery culture&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>increase of population size&nbsp; &amp; density &#8211;&nbsp;Demographic effect of agriculture&nbsp;as earlier carrying capacity of most envs kept human groups small. ) &amp; also reduced death rate among infants &amp; elderly (soft food -possible diet for toothless . Avg. Life expectancy was 31 -34 male &amp; 28 to 31 for female.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Permanent (community Interdependence) or semi permanent&nbsp; (coexistence) settlement&nbsp; &#8211;&nbsp; sedantism&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Division of labour &amp; specialization (ability of store surpluses)&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Social inequalities &#038; hierarchies\n<ul>\n<li>In Hunter gatherers food sharing was based on kinship. But in agricultural groups (leader may due to age or position) -&gt; more productive -&gt; more complex distribution system -&gt; more power to leader -&gt; prestige &amp; power -&gt; institutionalisation of post&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Change in division of labor &#8211; specialisation&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Influence the role of the sexes in society&nbsp; ; later on need of more intensive agriculture due to population pressure &#8211; role of women decreased. &amp; with it status have fallen as well. As their activity define their status ex among Iroquois Indians of American North east before European invasion &#8211; status was high&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Religion &lt;- Conflict-&gt; Political Organisation (to safe guard &amp; dispute resolution ) &#8211; conflict over property, territory &amp; resources&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Inequality(not seems to emerged tilll neolithic) &#038; conflict resolution paved way fro rise of religion\n<ul>\n<li>Crime prevention, resolve dispute, pass laws &amp; provide security&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Neolithic marked first settle life &amp; leisure time to develope social relations&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Wars &amp; Trade<\/strong>\u00a0&#8211; among different groups became more common\n<ul>\n<li>There was conflict in pre-farming days but the groups were too spread out for the violence to became systematised war fare.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Even the incentives to launch raids were greater than ever before because of enhanced productivity.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Also peaceful ways of obtaining the them; trade more elaborate &amp; first time institutionalised markets were setup by middlemen&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This both helped bring about radical change in distribution of physical traits to the world\u2019s population. More contact -&gt; intermingling of cultures -&gt; gene flow &amp; break down group differences&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Invention &#038; New Technologies &#8211; rate of innovation rosed dramatically &#8211; increased the ability to change the env. To support -> as ability increased,so dit population, thus redoubling the pressure to invent &#038; to discover\n<ul>\n<li>Population pressure b\/c of high production -&gt; incentive to find more efficient ways to use resources&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>News of breakthrough spread more quickly (due to war &amp; trade )<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Wheels &amp; sails, both were present by at least 5,300 BP in Mesopotamia&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Animal harvesting for plough &amp; transportation -&gt; energy revolution&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Irrigation tech &#8211; pot irrigation , canal irrigation&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Water resistance pottery, smelting art&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Regional peculiarities in Neolithhc cultures b\/c of local env. conditions &amp; diversity of influences.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>ssettled community life needed rules to regulate the behaviour of its member.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>dog (first animal to be domesticated) helped in hunting &amp; companion &amp; protector of family &amp; cattle&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Oxe was used as beast of burden, cttle used were raised in herds fro thier milk&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>fibers of flakes could be spurn into thread &amp; would be spun in Lenin cloths by use of bone needles&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>world\u2019s first boat by using dug outs made up of logs&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Limitation&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Since they had to depend entirely&nbsp; up on tools and weapons made of stone, they could not found settlement far away from the hilly area.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Technology Revolution<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>perhaps in later stage of neolithic the invention of wheel which brough about a techn. revolution<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mose kn we have is based on&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Region&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Sites<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Characteristics&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td rowspan=\"2\">North India&nbsp;<\/td><td>Burzahan, Near Srinagar , On Jhelum (2400-1400 BC)&nbsp; &#8211; Gofkral&nbsp;<\/td><td>Discovered by&nbsp;<strong>DeTErran &amp; Paterson (1935)&nbsp;<\/strong>&amp; excavated by TN Khazachi of ASITools&nbsp;deposits divided into 4 periods &#8211; first 2 Neolithic, 3rd Megalithic &amp; 4th&nbsp; early historic&nbsp;polished chisels &amp; mace beads. Polished axes, harvesters(rectangular knife)weapons made up of bones (Bone tools industry) (aCc ro Agarwal(ibid) &#8211; most developed in Indain Neolithc culture&nbsp;Absence of microliths16 Pit dwelling (irregular shaped)Potholes&nbsp;fishing, hunting &amp; faint clue of cultivation&nbsp;walls were plastered with mud&nbsp;potsherds representing hand made coarsely finished pottery (made by coiling tech.- Acc to Pant By RAdiography (1972) ) &#8211; whell not knownBurials of both man &amp; animalsSkeleton covered with red ochre (ritualistic tradition)Painting (Hunting scene) -&gt; steel qray to brown colour&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Mehargarh (5100BC)&nbsp; &#8211; Near Golan Pass in BaluchistanOldest neolithihc is subcontinent<\/td><td>Excaveted during Franch Archaeological exploration in&nbsp;<strong>1977<\/strong>&nbsp;by&nbsp;<strong>Jaringe &amp; Lechevaller&nbsp;<\/strong>Seminormadic settlementFunerary platformbitumen stickingcopper bead &amp; Turquoise bead(early phase)pendant of lead, beads of lapis-lazuli, red slipped pottery, a grooved elephant tusbasket marked pottery with animal motifs on it. in later period -&gt; signifies cultural evolution towards urban settlement&nbsp;It is thus spectacular discovery of a community with rudimentary evidence of all attributes &amp; achievement which are considered as prime movers to urban civilisation<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>East India&nbsp;<\/td><td><strong>Chirand (Bihar)<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; In Saran District of Bihar&nbsp; (2000 BC)&nbsp;At confluence of Ganga &amp; Ghagra&nbsp;<\/td><td>Abundance of bone &amp; antler tool -But No&nbsp; harponsbone used to make ameults such as&nbsp; ear rings, bangles, combs etc&nbsp;Weapons &#8211; bows &amp; arrows made up of stone &amp; bone points &amp; Terracota &#8211; sting balls&nbsp;Charred qrains of paddy husk &amp; wheat, Masoor &amp; moong&nbsp;evidence of&nbsp; sanke cult -&gt; Terracota figur of sanke &#8211; serpent figurines&nbsp;pottery welll made on turn table&nbsp;initally pit later only overground huts&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>North East India<\/td><td>DeoJali Hading (Assam)Norht cachar hills AOnly excavated site in Eastern I. rest all from surface&nbsp;Acc to Sankalia 4000-2000 BC&nbsp;<\/td><td>By TC Sharma&nbsp;Mud wallled houses , but no info about habitation str.&nbsp;&nbsp;hand made Pottery with cord or basket impression&nbsp;Polished stone tools (stone aaxes)ground &amp; polished celts are mostly&nbsp;<strong>shouldered at the butt end&nbsp;<\/strong>&amp; had ground, sharp border&nbsp;Absence of microliths, bone tools &amp; arificially contstructed habitation in addition to distinctive variety of celts led many schors to believe that Daolaki Hading may represent breakaway faction from YunnanAssam Quite different from rest of India similar to Chinese&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><\/td><td>Lamini &amp; Lapachi -2 sites in Manipur&nbsp;<\/td><td>OAC&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td rowspan=\"3\">South India&nbsp;c14 dating &#8211; 2500-1000 BC&nbsp;cha &#8211; Polished Axe &amp; adze also imp &amp; variety of chisels&nbsp;Late dev. of AGri&nbsp;Climate (less rainfall )toolkit (lackedfor agri)Economic stagnation o(symbiotic relationship with higer culture impacted&nbsp;<\/td><td>Sanganakally (KN)&nbsp;Tekkalikota&nbsp;<\/td><td>By Subha RaoPolished axeAdge is very prominentbolers &amp; pointedtolls&nbsp;hammer stone, sling stonebone tools&nbsp;cermic&nbsp;pottery -&gt; dul qrayl ware&nbsp; Hand made<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Maski (KN)<\/td><td>Wheel made pottery&nbsp;Terracota figurine of humped bull&nbsp;seems well acquinted with cattle rearing &amp; agri.&nbsp;concave shaped saddle querns &amp; pounders &#8211; grains coarsely crushed befor eating&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Brahmagiri-PIklihal (KN) &#8211;<\/td><td>By Wheeler&nbsp;Huts \/house<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>conclusion<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>So, The story of plant &amp; animal domestication (Artificial Selection) , developed of new tech &amp; inventions is the subject of so-called Neolithic Revolution &amp; it contributed to an enormous increase in the efficiency with which human could change the env. to support themselves. As the ability increased, so did population, thus redoubling the pressure to invent &amp; to discover. Thus The pace of social progress &amp; technology development gathered momentum with the beinning of Neolithic. From then onward man has never looked back. The invention of script &amp; several other achievements that followed paved the way for the development of civilisation.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Prehistoric Arts&nbsp;<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cWe can, indeed, imagine that long before man started to paint with Colors or engrave with specially made engraving tools, he must often have made rough drawing in sand, in the earth naturally, however such examples of early art would hardly ever survive\u201d &#8211;&nbsp;<strong>Leakey , 1960<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Earliest Evidence &#8211; Lower paleolithic&nbsp; but full fledged evidence from upper Palaeolithic&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Cave Art&nbsp;<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Upper Palaeolithic Art (Cave Art, Home Art)&nbsp;<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Rock &amp; cave paintings from France, Spain &amp; Italy&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In India, Adamgarh, Bhimbetka hills contains cave paintings (First discovered by&nbsp;<strong>Carlyle<\/strong>&nbsp;, other &#8211; Chekbum, Ardebil, Mitra, Gosh)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Palaeolithic mrunal paintings can be divided into\n<ol>\n<li>On Dark caves &amp; passages&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>On Open Rock shelters&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>on flat slabs of rocks &amp; tops of boulders&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The commonest explanation of the art hidden in dark caves &amp; inaccessible places is presence of&nbsp;Magicio religious beliefs&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Painting depicts hunting scenes, process of hunting (arrow strickers, bleeding animals)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Not only bored cave dweller\u2019s way of distracting themselves, but meaningful products of a patterned intelligence\n<ul>\n<li>Realistic representation of game animals -&gt; ritual design to encourage success of hunt, cure sickness, mark birth or death, or celebrate the onset of spring<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Exquisite \u201cVenus\u201d- Statues of Women (apparently pregnant ) might have been fertility symbol&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Various abstract signs &#8211; such rectangle, rows of dots, barbed lines, &amp; ovals &#8211; might have been symbolised male females &amp; their relations&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Consistency in location of various animal in the&nbsp; cave paintings suggested &#8211; intentional &amp; orderly rather than random.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>if these deciphered could provide a wealth of clues to how these early people lived, thought &amp; perhaps spoke&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Mesolithic Art&nbsp;<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>at Adamgarh, Mahadeo, Bhimbetka hills&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Paintings &#8211; Bison, Elephant, tiger, rhino, Boar&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>smaller than Palaeolithic but with diverse themes&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>drawn on walls &amp; ceilings&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>with white pigments, with black or deep purple obtained from magnesium oxides &amp; copper compounds to produce a bright shade of green&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>hematite &amp; other oxides of iron were used to produce colour in red, yellow, orange &amp; brown&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>female paintings were drawn either nude or in cloths&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>engraved figures of animals<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Mahipal\u2019s Study 1984 of Bhimbetka Paintings &amp;&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>Dry colour &amp; crayon paintings&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>wet transparent colour paintings&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>wet&nbsp; opaque or oil tempera paintings&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>spray colour paintings&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Findings&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>crayon paintings is rare in India<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Minerals &amp; ochre colour with either vegetable juice or animal fat<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>found hematite pieces throughout Mesolithic-Bhimbhetka&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Attempt to identify bird species &#8211; Perching birds are absent (as dependent on grain) -not available in hunting gatherings societies.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Neolithic Art<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Granite rock of North KN &amp; AP &#8211; Suitable platform&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>imp sites &#8211; kapgullu, Pikhlihal, Tekkalkota&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>content &#8211; Animals,\n<ul>\n<li>Kapgulla &#8211; unique scene showing exited males with outsized organs abducting females&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Home Art&nbsp;<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>include any art executed on moveable objects&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>prehistoric man beautified his body with necklaces, pins &amp; bracelets&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>material &#8211; ivory bone, stone &amp; shell, engraved designs on animal teeth &amp; soft stones sculptured in exotic shapes: Mesolithic &amp; Neolithic sites<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/065b2775-4c38-480f-8913-c7f81e474b0a\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Sum Up by Bhattacharya (1984)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>palaeolithic art gives earliest indication of mind of prehistoric man&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>circumstantial evidences of debris throw light on prehistoric society but not on mind of prehistoric man, his agonies &amp; source of ecstasies &amp; his art is sole window to his mind.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Chalcolithic period Art<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>\u2022&nbsp;Copper age art.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u2022&nbsp;reveal the association, contact and mutual exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with settled agricultural communities of the&nbsp;<strong>Malwa Plateau.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u2022&nbsp;Pottery and metal tools can be seen in paintings.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u2022&nbsp;<strong>Similarities with rock paintings:<\/strong>&nbsp;Common motifs (designs\/patterns like cross hatched squares, lattices etc)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u2022&nbsp;<strong>Difference with rock paintings:<\/strong>&nbsp;Vividness and vitality of older periods disappear from these paintings.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Pre-Harappan Culture (2700-2400 BC)&nbsp;<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p>Area quite vast streching upto Indo-Iranian boarderLand&nbsp; &#8211;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>These people these people stood at the threshold of urbanisation&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Common features- following are some of the striking feature of the pre-Harappan culture<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Skill of fortification&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>elaborate housing&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Pottery&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>cattle breeding and&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>commerce&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Some Imp Sites&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;Several&nbsp;<strong><u>Preharappan sites&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>have been found in&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Balochistan- Kili Gul Mohammed, Damb Saddat,&nbsp; Perisno,&nbsp; Gundai &amp; Kula Mahali&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sind &#8211; Amri, Kot Diji, Mohenjodaro&nbsp; and Gumla&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Punjab &#8211; Harappa&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>N. Rajasthan &#8211;&nbsp;<strong>kalibangan<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Gujarat &#8211; Lothal&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Bhanawali<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Haryana<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Indus Valley Civilization (2500-1750 BC)&nbsp;<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p>This culture \u201clike any great revolution may best be visualised as sudden offspring of opportunity &amp; genuine.\u201d&nbsp;<strong><u>Wheeler<\/u><\/strong>(1953) &#8211; Env. opportunity &amp; creative genius are responsible for greatness&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>was a&nbsp;<strong><u>Bronze Age C<\/u><\/strong>. Mainly in&nbsp;<strong>N-W region of South Asia<\/strong>&nbsp;with area around&nbsp;<strong>1.3 million sq. Km<\/strong>&nbsp;extending from what today is&nbsp;<strong>N-E Afghanistan to Pakistan<\/strong>(till boarder of Iran)&nbsp; &amp;&nbsp;<strong>Northwest India<\/strong>. First kn in Indian subcontinent existed from&nbsp;<strong>2500 to 1750 BC<\/strong>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Characteristised by bronze, town planing, presence of Granary, great bath, well fired pottery, seals, beads, weights , stone blades and even baked bricks<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Older than the chalcolithic culture<\/strong>&nbsp;but far more developed.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Most advanced<\/strong>&nbsp;out of the four contemporary civilizations&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Features of Civilization &#8211; Urban Life&nbsp;,Script, Sophisticated Tech., Materialistic Dev., Increasing Use of Metals(Alloys)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Sumerian Civilization<\/strong>&nbsp;(Mesopotamia) &#8211; Land b\/w two rivers &#8211;&nbsp; Tigeris, Eupratese ,&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Egyptian Civilization<\/strong>&nbsp;(Nile Valley),&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Chinese Civilization<\/strong>&nbsp;(Hwang Ho Valley)&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Names<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>IVC&nbsp;named after Indus valley&nbsp;(where first remains found). First time this name used by&nbsp;<strong><u>John Marshall<\/u><\/strong>. (Director General of ASI at the time of Indus valley excavation)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Also called&nbsp;<strong>Saraswati Civilization<\/strong>&nbsp;B\/c it is present in&nbsp;<strong>Sapta Sindhu Region<\/strong>&nbsp;which Includes rivers , Indus, Jhelum,chenab,Ravi, Sutlej, vayas, sarasvati (Ghaggar &amp; Hakra river identified by mythological river sarasvati)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Harappa Civilization B\/c First site to excavated in&nbsp;<strong>1921<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bronze Age Civilization<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Proto-Historic civilization<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; This civilization has script, but it is not studies by any archeologist, so It is called protohistoric.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Time Period&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>developed during post glacial period b\/w 2500 to 1800&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>However,\u00a0<strong><u>Mature phase<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0existed between 2200 Bc &#038; 2000 BC.\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Lothal<\/strong>&nbsp;was ancient part of Indus Civilization<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The IVC was primarily Urban civilization<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Around&nbsp;<strong>1750 two major cities Harappa &amp; Mohenjodaro, disappeared<\/strong>.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Several&nbsp;<strong><u>Preharappan sites&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>have been found in Baluchistan &amp; Kalibhangan in Raj &amp; Bhanawali Haryana<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Climate<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Characteristised by warm &amp; dry climate regime, vast area covered by forest &amp; bushes&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>People used different bronze &amp; lithic tools and cleared forest cultivated different types of crops.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Tool Technology&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; creative genius combined with env. opportunity helped to develop such tools tech &amp; type -&gt; helped IVC in developing an elaborate system of town planing.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>know art of Metallurgy (involve mining of ores, smelts of ore &amp; preparation of different type of tools from it kn as&nbsp;<strong>Craftsmanship<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Blade &amp; flake tech&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Tool Type<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>metallic tools &#8211; weapons, weight, measures etc&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>lithic tools &#8211; stone axe, chert blades, saw, spears, knives so on&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Various type Pottery having designs of flora &amp; fauna&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Tool Material&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>civilisation based on metal bronze &#8211;\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>cu<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;obtained from&nbsp;<strong>Khatri mines RJ<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Tin<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;from&nbsp;<strong>Afghanistan<\/strong>&nbsp;&amp; other countries&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Lithic &amp; non lithic material&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Regional variation<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; extende from&nbsp;Jammu in north&nbsp;to&nbsp;Narmada in south&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Makran coast of Baluchistan in west&nbsp;to&nbsp;Meerut in north.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Westernmost &#8211;&nbsp; Sutkagendor (Pak-Iran boarder) ,Dashk River<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Easternmost &#8211;&nbsp; &nbsp; Alamgirpur (UP), Hindon River<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Northernmost &#8211; Manda (J&amp;K) ,Chenab River<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Southernmost &#8211; Daimabad (Maharashtra), Pravara River&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/6ebc1be6-1164-3f8b-b98b-3fbe83b1417d\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/80b8857a-c2c8-0da4-86e2-ba7ad7f91cfb\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Harappa &amp; Mohenjodaro standout like twin capitals in single empire among a no. of sites\u201d &#8211; Childe (1952)&nbsp;<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>Name&nbsp;<\/td><td>Year and Excavator<\/td><td>District &amp; State<\/td><td>Archeological Findings&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Harappa<\/td><td>1921-Daya Ram Sahni1921(6-<strong>M.S. Vatsa<\/strong>1946-Wheeler<\/td><td>Sahiwal &#8211; Montgomery (Punjab) in PakistanOn bank of Ravi river<em>Punjabi story<\/em><\/td><td>2 rows of 6 Granaries with big platform<strong>Stone symbol of lingam and yoni.<\/strong>Mother&nbsp;<strong>goddess sculpture<\/strong>Wheat &amp;&nbsp; barley in wooden mortar.Dice,copper scale and mirror.Wooden Coffin (burials)&nbsp;A grave with 12 bronze mirrors, many jems and jewellerySculpture of dog chasing a deer in bronze metalA&nbsp;<strong><u>red sand stone male<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;torso.Workman\u2019s quarter&nbsp;Bullock cart (ekka)&nbsp;Symmetry&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Mohenjo Daro (&#8220;Mound of Dead &#8221; in Sindhi.)<\/td><td>1922- R.D. Bannerji1925-Mackay1930-Wheeler<\/td><td>Larkana (Sindh ) Pakistanon river bank of Indus<em>Mohanjodaro Movie &#8211; dance, CAG, hall , bath, priest &#8211; Pashupati, citadel<\/em><\/td><td>College&nbsp;Assembly hall<strong>Great granaries<\/strong><strong>Great Bath<\/strong>&nbsp;(89\u00d723\u00d78)FeetPiece of woven cloth&nbsp;A&nbsp;<strong>bronze dancing girl<\/strong>(World&#8217;s oldest bronze Sculpture)<strong>Steatite bust of a priest<\/strong>The Citadel<strong>Pashupati Seal<\/strong>Horse, Buffalo, male ship<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Chanhudaro(<strong>Lancashire<\/strong>of India)<strong>Only indus city with out Citadel or Acropolis&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td>1925-Mackay1931-M.G.Mazumdar<\/td><td>Nawabshah(Sindh)on Indus River130 km south of Mohenjodaro&nbsp;<\/td><td>LipsticksEvidence of CatBead making factoryInk pot&nbsp;Foot print of dog chasing a cat also found&nbsp;Exclusively devoted to&nbsp;<strong>craft production.<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Lothal (Manchester of Indus Valley Civilisation )<\/td><td>1954-S.R. Rao<\/td><td>Ahmedabad(Gujrat)in bank of&nbsp;<strong>Bhogava<\/strong>&nbsp;river&nbsp;at head of gulf of cambay&nbsp;<\/td><td>First&nbsp;<strong>man made port&nbsp;<\/strong>Dockyard(World&#8217;s oldest )Rice Husk ( 1st evidence of rice)&nbsp;Fire Alter &#8211;&nbsp;suggest&nbsp;<strong>fire<\/strong>&nbsp;worship or worship of Agni, the god of&nbsp;<strong>fire<\/strong>.Twin burial &#8211; suggests&nbsp;<strong>practicing of sati&nbsp;<\/strong>Terracotta horse<strong>Chess plain&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Kalibanga(Pre Harappa &amp; Harappa)&nbsp;<\/td><td>1951-Amalanand Ghosh1961-B.V. Lal-B.K. ThaparIt saw two cultural cultural phase i.e<strong>pre &amp; harappan<\/strong><\/td><td>Hanumangarh (N. Rajasthan)<strong>Ghaggar<\/strong><\/td><td>Both Balathal and kalibangan7 Fire alter (around some bones of cattles)<strong>Toy carts<\/strong>Bone of camelDecorated bricks<strong>Furrowed land suggesting practicing of agri by ploughing&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Banawali<\/td><td>1937-R.S BistIt saw two cultural cultural phase i.e pre &amp; harappan similar to Kalibangan.&nbsp;<\/td><td>Fatehabad \/ Hisar&nbsp;(Haryana)Ghaggar on dried up saraswati<\/td><td><strong>Toy plough<\/strong><strong>Barley<\/strong>&nbsp;grains<strong>Lapis lazuli&nbsp;<\/strong>( bead making shop)&nbsp;Fire AltarsOnly city with&nbsp;<strong><u>radial streets&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>and&nbsp;<strong>oval shaped settlements.<\/strong>Bone of horses<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Dholavira(Latest city to discovered)<\/td><td>1967-68-J.P Joshi (DG of ASI)&nbsp;6th largest site of IVC&nbsp;1st site in India to be included in UNESCO&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/td><td>Khadir island in Great Raan of Kutchh (GRK) (Gujrat)<strong>Luni<\/strong><\/td><td>A reservoirUnique water harnessing systemStadium was found&nbsp;Dams and embankmentsInscription comprising 10 large sized signs like an advertisement board<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Rakhigarhi&nbsp;<\/td><td>(<strong>Largest site of IVC<\/strong>)Provincial Capital<\/td><td>Hissar(Haryana<\/td><td>Terracotta bricks2020 :&nbsp;<strong>sign of beef eating&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Ropar<\/td><td>First Harappan site of Independent India<\/td><td>PunjabSutlej<\/td><td>Dog buried with human in oval pit burials,Copper axe<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Surkotada<\/td><td><\/td><td>Gujrat<\/td><td>First actual remains of horse bones<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Alamgirpur<\/td><td><\/td><td>Meerut ,UPYamuna<\/td><td>Broken blade made of copperCeramic items&nbsp;Impresion of cloths on a trough<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Mehrgarh<\/td><td>Precursor to Indus valley civilisation<\/td><td><\/td><td>PotteryCopper tools<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Kot Diji<\/td><td><\/td><td>Pakistan<\/td><td>TarStatues of BullMother goddess sculpture<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Suktagndor<\/td><td>Western Most site&nbsp;<\/td><td>Pakistan<\/td><td>Bangles of Clay<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Balu&nbsp;<\/td><td><\/td><td>Haryana<\/td><td>plant remains have been foundEarliest evidence of Garlic<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Daimabad<\/td><td>Southernmost site o<\/td><td>Maharashtra<\/td><td>Bronze Chariot<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Kerala no dhoro<\/td><td><\/td><td>Gujrat<\/td><td>Salt producing site during IVC<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Kot Bala<\/td><td><\/td><td>Pakistan<\/td><td>Earliest evidence of furnance<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Mand<\/td><td>Northern most site of&nbsp;<\/td><td>Jammu &amp; kashmir<\/td><td><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Other prominent sites of IVC include Mehrgar (Pakistan),&nbsp;<strong>Desalpur (Gujarat)<\/strong>, Pabumath (Gujarat), Rangpur (Gujarat), Shikarpur (Gujarat), Sanauli (UP), Kunal (Haryana),Karanpura (Rajasthan), Ganeriwala (Punjab), etc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Cities<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Capital Cities- Harappa &amp; Mohenjo Daro<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Port Cities- Lothal, Suktagendon, Allah Dino, Balakot(Shells we&#8217;re found), Nageshwar (Shells we&#8217;re found),Kuntasi<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Site based Superlatives<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;: Total Sites : 1400 (India : 900 , Pak-500 (Sindh &amp; Cholistan {the desert area of Pak boardering Thar})&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Largest site of IVC &#8211; Mohenjodaro (Pakistan) , means &#8220;Mound of Dead &#8221; in Sindhi,\n<ul>\n<li>Lothal means &#8221; Mound of Dead &#8221; in Gujarati.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>2nd Largest site of IVC &#8211; Harappa (Pakistan)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Largest site of IVC in India&nbsp;<\/strong>&#8211; Rakhigarhi (Haryana)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Only site where remains of horses where found &#8211; Kutch district of Gujarat<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Social &amp; Culture<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Town Planning<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; creative genius combined with env. opportunity helped to develop such tools tech(metallurgy, smelting &#038; craftsmanship)\u00a0 &#038; type(weapon, weight &#038; measure) -> helped IVC in developing an elaborate system of town planing. It was distinguished by its town planning.\u00a0<strong>General all were fortified.<\/strong>\u00a0It included\n<ul>\n<li>The arrangement of houses followed &#8211;<strong>Systematic town planning on the lines of Grid system<\/strong>\u00a0&#8211; cities were divided in blocks , nowhere building were allowed to encroach into public highways as in Sumer\n<ul>\n<li>Banavali was only city which was not made on the Grid System.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Chandigarh is the only city built on Grid pattern in India.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It is protected by walls. i.e Fortified&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Concern of privacy &#8211;&nbsp;<\/strong>No window in the walls along the ground level<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Every city is divided into 2 parts &#8211; included two type of buildings both built on raised platform\n<ul>\n<li>Chanhudaro &#8211; Only city which doesn&#8217;t had citadel<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Dholavira &#8211; The city was divided into 3 parts<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Public buildings &amp; Public bath&nbsp;<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"694px\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/86acdb6c-c6c3-2530-d5e4-fafb6be0e681\"><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>citadels &#038; other public buildings\n<ul>\n<li>Western part was used for constructing buildings of large dimensions\n<ul>\n<li>Granaries (divided into 2 blocks with attached platform for loading &#038; unloading eg. Harappa &#038; Mohanjodaro-Daro\n<ul>\n<li>Intelligently designed with&nbsp;Strategic air ducts&nbsp;and&nbsp;raised platforms&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Which helped in&nbsp;storage of grains&nbsp;and&nbsp;protecting them from pest<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Administrative buildings , citadels<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Pillared halls<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Courtyard\n<ul>\n<li>an unroofed area that is completely or partially enclosed by walls or buildings, typically one forming part of a castle or large house<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Rooms were centred around it.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Some of citadel building have been the residence of&nbsp; rulers and aristocrats. eg. Mohenjo-Daro<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Dockyards in case of Lothal&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>lower-City (but larger) &#8211; Dwelling Houses (workman quarter)\n<ul>\n<li>Contained at least two rooms along with kitchen, bathroom, courtyard &amp; possibly a upper story eg . Harappa&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Private wells and Properly ventilated bathrooms.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Do not have large monumental structure such as temples or rulers palaces.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Lamp post&nbsp;<\/strong>at regular intervals indicated the existence of street light<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Important feature is prevalence of\u00a0<strong>Public baths supplied with fresh&nbsp;<\/strong><em>water<\/em>\u00a0taken from a nearby well.\u00a0 ,Indicate the importance of ritualistic cleansing in their culture.\n<ul>\n<li>These baths also have an array of galleries and rooms surrounding it.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>A hot air bath was also available within the great bath eg. Mohenjodaro<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Great bath excavated in Mohenjo daro&nbsp;<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/673ee95e-152e-8e66-a5c2-db06b35cdd74\"><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Generally in building walls, pavements, bathrooms, drainage etc .Use of Brunt mud Bricks\u00a0in construction. &#8211; show advanced level of kn of Mansonry\n<ul>\n<li>Many layer of well backed bricks were laid out and then jointed together using&nbsp;<strong>gypsum mortar.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>In&nbsp;<\/strong>contemporary buildings of Egypt dried bricks were mainly used. Baked bricks in Mesopotamia, but in smaller extent.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Walls made of burnt bricks raised for protection show that floods took place annually.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sun dried bricks were also used only for foundation &amp; packing of terraces.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Brick kilns have been found from Mohenjodaro&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Underground Drainage system<\/strong>\u00a0with manholes &#038; constructed in grid pattern\u00a0 &#8211; unique feature\n<ul>\n<li>Cesspits were placed at regular intervals.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Big&nbsp;<strong>water reservoir in Dholavira<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Every city have drainage system&nbsp;<strong>except Banavali.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Immaculate maintenance of drainage both in streets &amp; houses shows the elaborate kn of people about town planning. Eg Harrapa &amp; Dholavira&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Uniformity in town plan May be brought about by&nbsp;<strong>centralisation of production along with its efficient administration&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Social Structure<\/u>&nbsp;of IVC&nbsp;<\/strong>\u00a0&#8211; usualy tried to found by studying burials, looking for luxurious items\n<ul>\n<li>Population&nbsp;of IVC- Mongoloids, Proto Australoid (Australia), Mediterranean ( not conform)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Emergence of cities &amp; consequent urban life resulted in specialisation of occupation; yet most people were farmers lying beyond the walls of cities<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Different occupations resulted into emergence of different class of people ; social stratification can be explained by different occupations&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Class divided based on Wealth &#8211; In class mobility is allowed<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Society was&nbsp;<strong>Matriarchal like Egyptians&nbsp;<\/strong>acc. to John Marshall ; but there are not clear idea about it.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The remains of Mohenjodaro demonstrates the existence of 4 main classes\n<ul>\n<li>The learned class of the intellectual elites, warriors , traders and artisans&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>manual labourers constitute an altogether different class<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Fashion Conscious-<\/strong>\u00a0as can be inferred from the different styles of hair and beard.\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Spindle Whorls<\/strong>&nbsp;were used for spinning, was made up of rare material like Faience ( a material made up from the ground sand or silica mixed with colour and gum &amp; then fired.)&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Political System<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0&#8211; It is unrecognisable from the artifacts and evidences we get in excavation but\n<ul>\n<li>According to&nbsp;<strong>D.D. Kaushambi &#8211;&nbsp;<\/strong>The priest class people are rulers i.e&nbsp;<strong>Theocracy<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>But&nbsp;<strong>R.S Sharma&nbsp;<\/strong>rejected this hypothesis, as there were no religious symbols (i.e temple etc.) Acc. to him Merchants were ruler.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Religion<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0( to reconstruct religious life from few surviving remains- risky endeavour\n<ul>\n<li>Didn&#8217;t worship Gods in temples, &#8211; No temple has been found in excavation unlike Egypt &amp; Mesopotamia&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>no other religious str. Except great bath -Indicate the importance of ritualistic cleansing in their culture.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Ideal were found there<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Male Deity (God )- Pashupati Mahadeva<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0(i.e the lord of animals) : Proto- Shiva (In opinion of John Marshall )- Represented in seals which was found in\u00a0<strong>Mohenjodaro<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>With 3 heads and 2 horns.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>as sitting in Yogic Posture&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Surrounded by four animal : Elephant, Buffalo, Tiger, Rhino<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Two deer appear at his feet<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>There was the\u00a0<strong>prevalence of Phalluc (Lingam) worship<\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li>Rig veda speaks of the non-Aryan people, who were the phallus worshippers.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Female Deity (Goddess)- Mother Goddess<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(also known as Matru Shakti or Shakti) ; terracotta figurines ; goddess of fertility .<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Shiva- Shakti worship&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>: Oldest form of worship in India, appear to have been part of religious belief of Harappa people (i.e Humped Bull)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bull, snake, tree were worshipped i.e\u00a0<strong>zoolatry and tree worship(esp. peepal)<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>seal depicting deity in midst branches of pipal<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Clear evidence of rituals along the&nbsp;<strong>animal slaughtering<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Dead bodies were buried as well as cremated&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Economic Activity<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0&#8211; all kind such as agri(predominant), manufacturing &#038; services.\n<ul>\n<li>Abundance of fertilite soil -> progress of agri -> Main Crops &#038; dietary\n<ul>\n<li>Wheat, barley, lentil, chickpeas, Rice, Dates,Mustard,Sesamum<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Cotton (First to produce cotton in world)<\/strong>&nbsp;thus aka&nbsp;<strong>sindon<\/strong>&nbsp;by greeks, also knew&nbsp;<strong>wool<\/strong>, spinning whorls used for spinning<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Millets are found from sites of Gujarat&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Found of Rice are relatively rare ; Lothal people used Rice<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ear wide range of plant &amp; animal products including fish &amp; beef.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Agricultural Technology<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0&#8211; Prevalence of agriculture indicated by finds of grain\n<ul>\n<li>Bull was known ; terracotta sculpture &amp; found on seal<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Plough<\/strong>&nbsp;was found at sites in&nbsp;<strong><u>Cholistan &amp; Banawali Haryana<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Ploughed field in kalibhangan Rajasthan&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Field had two set sets of furrow at right angle-Suggesting two crops grown together&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Don\u2019t know whether drawn by man or oxen&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In many place as no evidence so may be b\/c they used wooden plough&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>As located on semi arid lands,\u00a0<strong><u>irrigation<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0required\n<ul>\n<li>Traces of&nbsp;Gabarbands or nalas&nbsp;enclosed by dams for storing water&nbsp;in&nbsp;<strong><u>Shortughai in Afghanistan &amp; Baluchistan<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>But not in Punjab or sind<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Water resrviors at Dholavira Gujarat&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Domestication of Animals<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Reared Cattle, sheep, goat, Buffalo &amp; pig<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bones of wild animals such as boar, deer, gharial also found<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bone of fish &amp; fowl also found.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>humped bulls were favoured&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Signs of the feet of both dogs &amp; cats have been noticed<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Asses &amp; camels&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Horses were not in regular use although, have been reported in Surkotada, around 2000 BC.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>People in Gujrat Domesticated elephants, which was not the case with people of Mesopotamian. Animals<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sheep, Goat, Bull, Buffalo, Dog, Tiger, cat, Pig, Deer, Tortoise, Elephant, Camel, Rhinoceros.we\u2019re kn But&nbsp;<strong>Lion was not known<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Craftsmanship &#8211;<\/strong>weaver were weaving clothes of wool &amp; cotton<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Potters<\/strong>&nbsp;wheel was in full use &amp; made their own characteristics pottery&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Metallurgy<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0&#8211; also emerged\n<ul>\n<li>Iron was not known to them<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Use of Gold, copper &amp; Bronze was there.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Gold smith made jewellery of silver, gold (first 2 may be from AFG) precious stone ( from south India)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>remarkable uniformity &#038; standardisation in\u00a0<strong><u>Wights and Measures<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0of IVC\n<ul>\n<li>Weight seem to have 1:6 fragments&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>16 is bas<\/strong>e for weight &amp; measures&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Measuring rode show &#8211; the unit of length was&nbsp;<strong>13.2 inches<\/strong>&nbsp;; perhaps lowest fraction was 0.367 inches&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Allchin &amp; Allchin(1968)<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;rightly commented &#8211; uniformity appear all more&nbsp;<strong>imposing<\/strong>&nbsp;when one considers the cultural extended more than a million sq km.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Trade and Barter&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; There was extensive regional and foreign trade (Lothal : as portal city)( controversial) Rao (1973 supported)\n<ul>\n<li>Foreign trade with Mesopotamia or Sumer ( Modern Iraq), Bahrain etc flourished.\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Sura and Ur are mesopotamian places<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;where Harappan&nbsp;<strong>seals (the small piece of steatite : 1cm)<\/strong>&nbsp;were found.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mesopotamian text mentioned contact with regions named&nbsp;<strong>Dilmun (Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha( possibly Harrappan Region)<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Exports- Agri Product, Cotton goods, Terracotta, Figurines, Pottery, Ivory Products, Copper etc<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>No evidence of coins,<strong>&nbsp;barter system<\/strong>(Exchanging the Good) is assumed to have been the normal method of exchange of goods.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mesopotamian seals were always&nbsp;<strong>cylindrical shape<\/strong>&nbsp;, 3 of which are found in Mohenjo Daro.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Indian cotton was found in&nbsp;<strong>UMMA<\/strong>. In 2300 BC&nbsp;<strong>Sindon<\/strong>&nbsp;means cotton In Greek derived from Sindh.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mesopotamian script, which is written in&nbsp;<strong>cuneiform<\/strong>, refers to trade relation with Meluha which is name given to Indus region.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Copper (from Raj.&amp; Oman), Tin ( from Afghanistan &amp; Iran) Gold ( from present-day Karnataka) precious Stones (from present-day, Gujarat, Iran &amp; Afghanistan )<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In&nbsp;<strong>Raj from Khetri Area<\/strong>&nbsp;; it&#8217;s called as&nbsp;<strong><u>Ganeshwar- Jodhpura Culture<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;due to it&#8217;s distinctive none Harappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Skript and Language<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Pictographic Script<\/strong>&nbsp;(400 to 500 Symbols) yet to be deciphered ; schoolers generally agree that were written right to left&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Boustrophedon Language<\/strong>&nbsp;( if in first line left to right then in second right to left then again left to right)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Used scripts on seal, pots etc&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Don\u2019t write long inscriptions, mostly on seal&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Sculptures of Harappan Civilisation (Technology &amp; Crafts)&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Culture belongs to the Bronze age.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Most commonly found were seals , bronze figures and Potteries&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Potters wheel was in full use &amp; made their own characteristics pottery&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>also weapons such as axes, saws, knives &amp; spears.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Seals (the small piece of&nbsp;steatite ()&nbsp;: 1cm)<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Seal consists of the pictographs, animals etc &amp; Shape rectangle or square, 4000 seals found&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Reasons of Decline of IVC<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>there are several theories such as foreign invasion m, climate change, hydrological change, tectonic Phenomenon&nbsp; and physio chemical explosions to describe the decline of Harappan civilisation.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Some ascribe its disappearance to the&nbsp;<strong>decreasing fertility on account of increasing salinity of soil&nbsp;<\/strong>caused by the&nbsp;<strong>extension of the neighbouring desert<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Foreign Invasion Theory<\/u>&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;<\/strong>associates were\u00a0<strong><u>Pegot, Gorden &amp; Wheeler.<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0Drew conclusions from following facts\n<ul>\n<li>Periodical reinforcement of the fortified walls at the urban sites&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Rgvedic mention of the similar invasion &amp; conquering&nbsp; by the Indo-European or Aryans<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Presence of drones and other kind of traditional weapons associated with the Indo Europeans<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Discovery of the&nbsp;<strong>skeleton<\/strong>&nbsp;at the Mohenjo Daro which sign of violence Massacre.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>However it is difficult to support the theory&nbsp; b\/c Indus civilisation existed between 2500 to 1800 BC whereas earliest Indo-European invasion took place around 1500 BC so far known from Rigveda.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>It can be said that the nomads and invaders must have been coming from Central Asia politically and defence against them was done by the walls .&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>So far archaeological evidences of clear contact between the Aryan and the Harappan\u2019s have been leaking more Geomorphological and archaeological evidence is required to reach the definite conclusions&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Thus story does not explain the decline of civilisation also there are no archaeological evidences in favour of the theory&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Climate Change Theory<\/u>&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;<\/strong>By Marshal &#038; Ostein\n<ul>\n<li>The opined&nbsp; that climate during this period was wetter than today and it was slowly causing&nbsp; aridity which is the failure of economy and hence&nbsp; ofcource&nbsp; civilisation<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>However there are no conclusive evidence so far in favour of this theory<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Tectonic Phenomenon(Depression)<\/u>&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/strong>&#8211; Railes, Dales &#038; others after studying water deposited layer in Mohenjodaro, Amri &#038; Chanhu-daro.\n<ul>\n<li>Indus was flooded suddenly b\/c of tectonic phenomenon&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Physicians-chemical Explosion<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0&#8211; by Soviet Scholar Dimitryev\n<ul>\n<li>He explained that there was a physio chemical exposures in which resulted in the sudden disappearance of Mohenjo Daro .<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"513px\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/ae745a6f-8358-2f73-cda4-a437bdff67ec\"><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Evidences are drawn from the Mahabharat which mentioned similar explosions&nbsp; in the region of the Mohenjo Daro and found out charred bodies and melting stone in some site of the Mohenjodaro&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Hydrological changes<\/u><\/strong>\n<ol>\n<li>Lambrick suggested that East ward shift of discussed periodic inundation&nbsp; in and around Mohenjo Daro city leading to loss of agriculture economy<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>VN Mishra<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0studied the Palio channel of the river Ghaghra (Rj) in course of time it shifted to words East ultimately joining the Ganga system .\n<ul>\n<li>this resulted in the dryness in the Sutlej and hence the Indus&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>those it brought a crash in economic surplus&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>it was not all the sudden rather gradual<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Today, Indus river is 40 km away from the Mohenjo daro but in ancient period, this city was bulit on the banks of Indus.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Natural disaster like earthquake or Tsunami&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Wild animals invasion.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ecological Degradation\n<ul>\n<li>Indiscriminate use of natural resources<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Current Updates<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Based on the&nbsp;<strong>molecular chemical analysis (c16 &amp; c18)<\/strong>&nbsp;in shards of pottery found at the archaeological site of&nbsp;<strong>Kotada Bhadli (Gujarat)<\/strong>&nbsp;\u2192 dairy production in IVC at Industrial level \u2192 first time about || economy &#8211; agro pastoral or rural. \u2192 life of common maters&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>2020 Mark&nbsp;<strong>100th year of discovery of IVC<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Contribution of Harappa culture to Indian Civilisation&nbsp;<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>following are the contribution of Harappan culture to Indian Civilisation&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>The&nbsp;<strong>cult of Pashupati (shiva) and of the mother goddess and the phallic worship<\/strong>&nbsp;seems to have come down to Indian civilisation from Harappa tradition&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The&nbsp;<strong>cults of Sacret Places, rivers or trees and the sacred animals<\/strong>&nbsp;show a distinct continuity in the subsequent historic civilisation of India<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The evidence of the&nbsp;<strong>fire worship and sacrifice in Kali baingan and Lothal<\/strong>&nbsp;is significant these were significant element of vedic religion<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Many aspects of the&nbsp;<strong>domestic life&nbsp;<\/strong>like house planes, the disposition of water supply and attention to bathing&nbsp; survived in the settlement of the subsequent period<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Traditional&nbsp;<strong>wheat and currency system based on the ratio of 16<\/strong>&nbsp;as the unit was already present in Harappa civilisation<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Making of&nbsp;<strong>Potters wheel in India<\/strong>&nbsp;-this technique was present Harappa&nbsp; period<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bullock carts and the board is used in modern India were already present in the Harappan cities&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>as we can see that the many elements of the Harappan civilisation survived in the subsequent historical tradition<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Chalcolithic Age (6k BC)<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p>Neolithic Age followed by&nbsp;Chalcolithic(copper-stone)Age&nbsp;in which stone continued to be used along with copper. Also kn as&nbsp;<strong><u>Eneolithic<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Most of these cultures belong to a period after Harrapa culture but were less advanced than Harrapa culture.(emerged earlier than chalcolithic)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Include &#8211; non-urban &amp; no Harrapa cultures; urban tradition of earlier Harrapa disappeared &amp; marked by rural economy.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>World<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>first emerged in Fertile Crescent &amp; later gave rise to Bronze Age in 4th millennium BC<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In Middle East &amp; Caucasus &#8211; in late 5th millennium Bc&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Acc to&nbsp;<strong><u>Parpola<\/u><\/strong>, ceramic similarities b\/w Indus, southern Turkmenistan &amp; norther Iran during 4300-3300 Bc &#8211; suggest considerable mobility &amp; trade.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Time Period<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;<strong>Chalcolithic Age (inclusive time spread&nbsp;<a href=\"tel:+9117501000\">1750-1000<\/a>&nbsp;)is divided into three stage<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Pre-Harappan Age 3500 BC-25,00 BC<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Harappan Age 2500 BC &#8211; 1750 BC<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Post Harappan Age &#8211; 2000 BC -1000 BC\n<ul>\n<li>Aka sub indus culture, late harappan<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cultural homo disappear&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;stylistic diversity<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Primarily chalcolithic<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Rural settlement<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>decline in trade, commerce, town planning<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>swat valley- northernmost outpost of late harappan culture<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>NOTE- ragi and finger millet not known so far in any harappan site<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Tool Technology<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>New Tech of&nbsp;smelting &amp; crafting Metal ores&nbsp;imp deve in Human Civili ;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Tool Types<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>microlithic tools( contd to be essential items) + other stone tools and little use of copper&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Tool Material&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Copper ( First metal to be used) + Stone continued to be used&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Sociocultural Activities&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>People began to travel long distance to obtain metal ores \u2014&gt; led to&nbsp;network of Chalcolithic cultures&nbsp;in India ,&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>gen grown in river V but not far away from hills ( as stone also needed)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Remarkable trend of Ruralisation ; Village Economy<\/strong>&nbsp;, no urban civilization. &#8211;&nbsp;Founded first full fledged villages in India<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Excellent progress in Pottery;&nbsp;<strong>First to use painted pottery &#8211; Black &amp; Red pottery<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;<strong><u>wheel turned pottery<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Improvements in habitats like wattle &amp; daub patterns,&nbsp;<strong>worker\u2019s quarter in&nbsp;<u>Inamgaon<\/u><\/strong>, use of bamboo framework&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cultivated far more cereals than known in Neolithic -Produce\u00a0<strong>wheat &amp; rice<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>In addition staple crops they also cultivated&nbsp;<strong>Bajra<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Pulses like Lentil (Masur), black gram. green gram and grass pea<\/strong>.- found in digging at&nbsp;<strong><u>Navdatoli<\/u><\/strong>&#8211;&nbsp;also produced ber and Linseed.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>cotton<\/strong>&nbsp;on the black cotton soil in deccan<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ragi, bajra and several millets were cultivated in the lower decan.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In eastern&nbsp;<strong>India fish and Rice<\/strong>&nbsp;i.e Bihar and West Bengal<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>High IMR (large no. of child burials)<\/strong>despite good producing economy &#8211; may be due to lack of nutrition, -nc of medical kn or outbreak of epidemic. &#8211;&nbsp;<strong>General Weakness of Chalcolithic Culture &#8211;&nbsp;<u>Sharma 1977<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Domesticated animals &#8211;<strong>Not clear whether they have been acquainted with horse.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Food supplemented by non vegetarian food &#8211; People certainly ate beef but pork not at considerable amount<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Beginning of Social Inequality &#8211;\u00a0different of material within the grave\n<ul>\n<li>In chandogi &amp; Nevada western MH -some&nbsp; children buried with cu bead necklaces &amp; other only with pots&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Expert coppersmith and good workers in stone<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>They know art of spinning and weaving and acquainted with cloth manufacturing .<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Spindle whorls have been discovered in Malwa.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cotton, flax and silk threads have been found in Maharashtra.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Burial process&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>No separate cemeteries&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Under the floor of their houses<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>regional cults&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Terracotta figures of women : venerated&nbsp; to mother goddess.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Used unbaked nude clay figurines for worships.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bull terracottas : bull serves as religious cult.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Except for the alluvial plain &amp; the thickly forested areas, traces of Chalcolithic all over India. May be&nbsp;<strong>divided in 6 regional groups<\/strong>&nbsp;(limited copper &amp; abundance of lithic blades )&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong><u>Ahar Banas Culture<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Ahar, Bagor &amp; Gilund of Banas culture<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Chalcolithic culture of MP<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Kayatha, Maheshwar, Navadatoli, Nagda, Avara, Manoti &amp; Evan&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>North Deccan&nbsp;Chalcolithic culture<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Prakash, Bahal, Chandola, Jorwe, Nevada, Inamgon &amp; Nasik&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Neolithic Chalcolithic culture of Deccan<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Piklihal, Brahamagiri &amp; Maski&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Chalcolithic culture Of Gangetic Doab<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Bahadurabad, Ambarkheri, Hastinapur &amp; Atranjikhera&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Eastern Chalcolithic culture<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Chirand &amp; Pandin Rajan Dhibi&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Saurashtra &#8211; Lothal, Rangpur, Somnath &amp; Rajdi&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Chain of linkage Banas Culture is influenced by Harrapa , by Malwa &amp; it by Jorwe&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Culture&nbsp;&#8211; difference of characteristics ceramics&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Sites &amp; Discoverer&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Characteristics&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Ochre Coloured Pottery Culture&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>(Copper Hoard Culture)&nbsp;Rest All were Extra Harrapan Chalcolithic&nbsp;<\/td><td>Mid Gangetic valley&nbsp;Gangetic Doab &nbsp;On rubbing off the left an ochreous colour: hence namethe&nbsp;ochre coloured pottery area&nbsp;was&nbsp;not far from that of the Harappans.<\/td><td>By&nbsp;<strong><u>BB Lal<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;at&nbsp;<strong>Hastinapur<\/strong>&nbsp;; published in&nbsp;<strong>Ancient India &#8211;&nbsp;<\/strong>variety of cu tools mostly in catch(UP,MP &amp; Bihar)&nbsp;<strong><u>Type<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; rings, flat &amp; shouldered celt Anthromorph, swords, double axes, harpoons socket axes<strong><u>Copper hoards<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; remains of Harrapa refugees on the eastward March&nbsp;copper- hoard people were&nbsp;<strong>contemporaries of the Harappans,<\/strong>&nbsp; &#8211; Give &amp; take between&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Banas Culture&nbsp;(1700-1400BC)<\/u><\/strong><\/td><td>South Eastern Raj , Near&nbsp;<strong>Banas river&nbsp;<\/strong>in RajSites &#8211;<strong><u>Ahar<\/u><\/strong>(closest to Harrapa both geographically &amp; Radio carbon ) ,<strong><u>katha&nbsp; &amp; Gilund<\/u><\/strong><\/td><td>Imp &#8211; Black &amp; Red ware, painted white on exterior&nbsp;Geometric motifs&nbsp;Jawar (period II), impressions of long grained rice, animal bones in plentyactive copper smelting activity&nbsp;Most of the&nbsp;<strong><u>sites found in Raj<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;b\/c it is large source of copper<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Kayatha (Malwa) of MP<\/u><\/strong><\/td><td>Malwa Region by&nbsp;<strong><u>V.S Walkankar<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;in 1964&nbsp;On the bank of&nbsp;<strong>kalisindh<\/strong>, an effluent of Chambal&nbsp;Malwa&nbsp;<a href=\"tel:+9114001200\">(1400-1200<\/a>&nbsp;BC)&nbsp;By Sankalia&nbsp;Sites -MP : Eran, Nagda, Navadatoli&nbsp;MH : Inamgaon&nbsp;<strong>Navadatoli<\/strong>&nbsp;site par excellence&nbsp;<\/td><td>Distinct features-&nbsp;pottery in 3 fabrics.&nbsp;Most prominent is thick, sturdy brown slipped ware painted in violet or deep red.&nbsp;\u2022 Quite well off the copper &#8211; from 1 pot alone 28 cu bangles&nbsp;\u2022&nbsp;Developed blade industry&nbsp;&#8211; lunates, pen knives, parallel sided blades made on chalecedony&nbsp;\u2022&nbsp;<strong><u>Residence<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; post holes of circular &amp; rectangular huts, no burials reported&nbsp;<strong>Main seat of M&amp;k culture,<\/strong>&nbsp;even Banas extended here\u2022 Malwa ware &#8211; a&nbsp;<strong>buff orange<\/strong>&nbsp;slipped pottery painted in black or brown&nbsp;\u2022 Use of copper &amp; stone tools\u2022 Small settlement of daub &amp; wattle huts&nbsp;Richest for paintings (black &amp; red ware)Charred grains of wheat, barley &amp; rice, linseed, black gram, lintel&nbsp;Ber, Amla &amp; grass pea (consumed)Evidence of eating of beef &amp; pork (Agarwalibid)&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Jorwe Culture<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(1300-700 BC)&nbsp;<\/td><td>Predominates whole of&nbsp;<strong>MH except Konkan&nbsp;<\/strong>Jorwe is a village situated on the&nbsp;<strong><u>Pravara river<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; named due to ceramic speciality&nbsp;Inamgaon in Ouna(MH) : best representative&nbsp;<\/td><td>Cultivates barley, wheat, lentils &amp; rice&nbsp;<strong>Artificial irrigation&nbsp;<\/strong>-nc of dishes- food consumed in liquid form , earthen pan-for baking chapattis, large saddle quarn &#8211; to make barley &amp; wheat flour&nbsp;Hollmark<strong>Jorwe ware &#8211; Red orange Matt surface&nbsp;<\/strong>painted in geometric designs, fine fabric, well baked&nbsp;Burialschildren &amp; adult were buried with head facing NorthAdult in extended position&nbsp;Children in coarse handmade red grey ware unitsfemale Figurineswith or without headReproductive features exaggerated- Fertility cultSettlement Pattern&nbsp;Social HierarchyIn contrast to humble huts &amp; pits silos of craftsmen, centre of the settlement was occupied by elites&nbsp;Houses were mostly made up of wattle and daub , seem to have been thatched houses.&nbsp;Occasionally their houses were made of mud bricks<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Eastern Chalcolithic Culture<\/u><\/strong><\/td><td>Bihar, Bengal, Orissa&nbsp;Imp site &#8211; Chirand&nbsp;<\/td><td>Ceramic industries&nbsp;Handmade thick grew wareA wheel thrown red wareBlack &amp; red ware&nbsp;pottery Form&nbsp;&#8211; Storage jars, dishes on stand, spouted vases, bowls on stand , lots etc&nbsp;Terracotta&nbsp;Figurines &#8211; Serpent common -&gt; may origin of&nbsp;<strong>Naga puja (Serpent cult)<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Limitations<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>In spite of food producing economy, high mortality rate.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Supply of copper was limited and also metal copper has its limitations<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>People don&#8217;t know the art of mixing tin with copper&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Didn&#8217;t know the art of writing nor live in the cities as people of bronze age did.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Iron Age&nbsp;<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>in India considered as&nbsp;<strong>threshold of ancient history<\/strong>. So of historical accounts of ancient history like Vedic, Upanishadic &amp; Brahmanic literary evidences are sometimes used to construct cultural evidences of Iron Age<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It shows Development of people in which tool &amp; weapons whose main ingredient was Iron, were used&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Last of metal age &amp; followed chalcolithic \/ copper age . And considered as started around 1000 BC when iron is harnessed to clear forest for establishing permanent colonies.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><em>clearing Forest \u2192&nbsp; sedentary life\u2192&nbsp; surplus \u2192&nbsp; large cities \u2192&nbsp; superstructure (mighty political power)&nbsp;<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Division of Iron Age<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"tel:+9112001000\">1200-1000<\/a>&nbsp;BC &#8211;&nbsp;<strong>Early<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>1000 BC onwards-&nbsp;<strong>Late<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; No firm ending, used as Iron alloy- Steel<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Why Change from Bronze (tin+cu) to Iron&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>Stronger than bronze&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>High melting point&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Easy availability in plenty&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Available tech.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cheaper&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>Climate Regime<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Origin : In post glacial period around 1500 BC<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Characteristised by warm &amp; dry climate&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Technology<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Direct Modelling&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Metallurgy-&gt; Steel ( Better Strength)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Blade technology&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Flake Technology&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool type<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Agricultural tools such as ploughshare, sickle, shovels, spades, saw, axe, arrow head, sword, blades<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Axe facilitated the clearing of Forests on large scale for getting more land under cultivation&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Microliths remain without much change&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Socio-Cultural Features<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Economic<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>use of iron-&gt; clearing Forest -&gt; increased production : Agri Dev.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Irrigation, oweing to need of agri&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Trade &amp; commerce b\/w different region&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Pottery making reached peak with rise of PGW (on wheel, coarse with oblique bands) along with BRW<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>More non lithic tools like bone arrow heads, bangles, beads along with glass appears&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Social<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Urbanisation once again since decline of IVC ; Middle Gangetic plan &#8211; 2nd Urbanisation phase during ice age&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Complex class based society, due to complexity of trade , agri&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Habitation pattern show trends like mud bricks, wattle &amp; daub huts (0,[]) -Bhagawanpur&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Religious&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Megalithic culture of south &#8211; show role of religion &amp; supernatural entities reached its peak&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Terracotta figurines show personification&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Emergence of full time religion specialist&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Political&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>scholars like&nbsp;<strong><u>BB Lal&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>equates Iron Age with age of Maharashtra&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Large sized kingdom were based on foundation of Iron Age&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Warfare increased owing to emergence of complex tech.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Art&nbsp;<\/u>&#8211;&nbsp;<\/strong>Sophisticated art, monumental buildings&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Demographically&nbsp;<\/strong>increased population&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Regional Variation<\/u><\/strong>:&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>iron enters at different parts of India with diff social context, thus diff. Iron Age features are developed in diff area<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Region&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Sites<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Characteristics&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>North Western Boundary<\/u><\/strong>From evidence of Mehergarh Iron Age in west of Indus can ascribe as 1100-900 BC&nbsp;<\/td><td><strong>Mehergarh&nbsp;&#8211; Baluchistan&nbsp;<\/strong>Earliest evidence of cuAbounded before Dev. Of Mature Harappa&nbsp;<strong>However<\/strong>, Transition to post Harrapa witnessed at Pirak , -initially harappan influence, But around&nbsp;<a href=\"tel:+9113701340\">1370-1340<\/a>&nbsp;Iron apex&nbsp;<\/td><td>First time appearance of&nbsp;<strong>Barley &amp;&nbsp; rice&nbsp;<\/strong>cultivation in this zone<strong>Terracotta figurines<\/strong>&nbsp;in much larger frequency&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><\/td><td><strong>Gandhara Grave Culture<\/strong>Sites &#8211; Taxila, charsada &amp; Timaragarha (large grove complex with grave goods)&nbsp;<\/td><td>Received metal without any change in their pre existing culture&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Gangatic Region&nbsp;(2nd urbanisation)&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>Urban centres around Indus &amp; ghaggar during 2600 Bc to 1500 &#8211; vacated during this&nbsp;Population mov. from Siswal group of HR &amp; East Punjab&nbsp;<\/td><td><strong>Painted Grey Ware Culture<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; western Gangetic plain &amp; Ghaggar Hakra valley b\/w 1200-600 BC&nbsp;\u2022 successor of BRW in western r\u2022 Contemporary to BRW of eastern regionIncluding<strong>Raj<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; Jodhpur, Sardharghar&nbsp;<strong>Up<\/strong>&#8211; kalama, Hastinapur, Batesewara, West of Allahabad, mathura&nbsp;<strong>Haryana<\/strong>-East Punjab&nbsp;Almost most PGW sites are&nbsp;<strong>farming villages,&nbsp;<\/strong>but some relatively large settlement- ch. as Town&nbsp;<strong><u>Jakhera<\/u><\/strong>Bhagwan pura&nbsp;&#8211; Kuk district Haryana&nbsp;Thus, PGW probably correspond to&nbsp;<strong>Middle &amp; late Vedic period (Kuru Panchala Kingdom)&nbsp;<\/strong>\u2022 1st large phase after d of IVC&nbsp;\u2022 Succeded by NBPW (North Black Polished) from 700-500 BC<\/td><td>PGW &#8211; Creamic type having thin fabric of very well levigated clay .&nbsp;Fired uniformly grey by heating upto 800 c in well 02Types&nbsp;&#8211; straight sided bowls, dishes &amp; lotas&nbsp;Decoration&nbsp;&#8211; thick black line, with paintings of short spirals, sigmas, swastikas&nbsp;Demonstrat Proto urban stage&nbsp;Evidence of fortifications, stone weights , water channel &amp; embankment&nbsp;Show overlap b\/w&nbsp;<strong>late Harappa &amp; PGW&nbsp;<\/strong><strong>Evidence of large bricks&nbsp;<\/strong>BB Lal&nbsp;associated It, Hastinapur &amp; mathur with Mahabharat period&nbsp;<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/caca0fe6-7126-ae33-77ba-f56072b09d6f\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Eastern Region&nbsp;<\/u><a href=\"tel:+9113701340\"><u>(1370-1340<\/u><\/a><u>&nbsp;BC)&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/td><td>Eastward of middle Ganga valley from&nbsp;<strong>Kaushambi onwards&nbsp;<\/strong>Kausambi, Chirand, (Bh) Mahisadal &amp; Pandu, Rajar Dhibi (WB) &#8211; Iron occurrences- 800 bc&nbsp;<\/td><td>Iron seen grafted within previously existing Chalcolithic Black &amp; Red ware&nbsp;<strong>Continuation of microliths without change&nbsp;<\/strong><strong>Sharply carinated vessel common&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Southern Region&nbsp;(800-500 BC)&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/td><td>S. Neo-chalcolithic site show change in metal around 800 bc&nbsp;<strong><u>Hallur<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; occurs little earlier&nbsp;<\/td><td>Named&nbsp;<strong>Megalithic Culture<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; as know entirely from them&nbsp;BRW &#8211; commonly foundIron Inplements&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Anatolia &#8211; earliest &amp; systematic production&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mesopotamia &#8211; through Hittite empire&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Levant State &#8211; Jordon, Israel&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mediterranean&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Egypt&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Megalithic Culture in India&nbsp;<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>REM wheeler<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;describes Megalithics as \u201cmonuments which are built of rough, large, undressed block of stone of rudimentary character which are burials, fulfilling funerary or commemorative or religious functions.\u201d&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Worldwide feature as&nbsp;<strong>memorial stone for dead<\/strong>&nbsp;;&nbsp;Neolithic in Europe&nbsp;but&nbsp;<strong>in India function of Iron Age specially South India.&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>May be earlier used as funeral proceedings, later errected as memorial stones&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Earliest Evidence&nbsp;of megalithic graves &amp; funerary appendages&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>in India &#8211; 1872 but ,&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>archaeological efforts began in 1944 since than many found in South India<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Mortimer Wheeler<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;attempted&nbsp; to organise South Indian megalithic chronologically &#8211; found these are not as old as thought&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Types<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;(4 types below are representative of megalithic cult in India.)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/2ffc8089-b9b7-aed4-d86f-2bcc9afd2652\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Regional Variation &amp; Sites<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Bramagiri &amp; chandravali (KR)<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211;&nbsp;<strong>Dolmen<\/strong>&nbsp;Type &#8211; By&nbsp;<strong><u>Mortimer Wheeler&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Coorg &#8211; by<strong><u>&nbsp;K.K Subhaya&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>4 site at Heggadehali &#8211; underground passage to cist &#8211; granite slab for funerary offering&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Karnatak Megalithics<\/strong>\u00a0&#8211;\u00a0<strong><u>Sundara (1975)<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0tried to show mutual borrowing both of neochalcolitgic &#038; megalithic\n<ul>\n<li>On examining of post holes cist &#8211; finds resemblance s with Mediterranean &amp; Western Europe megaliths&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Hallur &amp; Paiyampali&nbsp;<\/strong>&#8211; show judicious use of rock (particular rock for particular tomb)\n<ul>\n<li>Unique architectural ex &#8211; passage chamber<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Evidence of agri&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Maharashtra Megalithic<\/strong>&#8211; by\u00a0<strong><u>Nagpur Uni (1968)&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>on bank of Krishna\n<ul>\n<li>Takalghat site &#8211; evidence of habitation&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mahurjhari &#8211; heaven of megalithic; BRW pottery&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Vedarbha megalithic culture<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; Dhule, Amaravati , Paunar, Nagpur etc<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>North India Megalithic Culture&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>UP Megalithic- Banda, Allahabad, Mirzapur &#038; Varanasi\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Cultural change in grave good<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; unlike south (microliths) iron objects found<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>At koldihwa &amp; khajuri<\/strong>&nbsp;-&gt; chalcolithic megalithic b\/w Varanasi &amp; Kotta of Allahabad&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Leh &amp; Jhelum valley J&amp;K&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Raj &amp; MP<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Imp Points&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Burials Rituals<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0&#8211; m. Communities dominated by religious &#038; supernatural beliefs- evident from elaborative objects associated with burials\n<ul>\n<li>Different burials tradition indicates diff. Social &amp; ethnic groups&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>No regional convention regarding orientation of bodies or graves is observed.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Community<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0life must exist indicated from mammoth task of erecting megalith but as data on settlement partner is absent-\n<ul>\n<li>so difficult to construct social org ;&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>might comprised of different professional groups , inferred fro Grave goods offered&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Origin<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; appearance of culture, entirely exotic to pre- existing cultural canvas of the region lead to belief that megalithic builders arrived from&nbsp;West via Sea route ( from coastal region of Arabia)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Ethnic Affinity<\/strong>\u00a0&#8211; authors of these may be people from Arabia who maintained gypsy like tented colonies (bred horses to trade with newly rising political centre around middle Ganga.\n<ul>\n<li>River-Carnac&nbsp;relates these to Central Asian Tribes<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sarkar (1960)&nbsp;&#8211; Scythian or Iranian based on Brahmagiri skeleton&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Chronology<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0&#8211; different assigned different\n<ul>\n<li>Wheeler (1948) assigned date 2nd cen BC&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sundara &amp; Aiyapoan even extended megalithic to Neolithic times&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This culture may not refer to as any prehistoric culture(custom among different communities from Neolithic time to Bronze Age &#038; early historic period)\u00a0 ;\u00a0<strong><u>Megalithic as living tradition in tribes&nbsp;<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Central Indian tribes&nbsp;; Gonds, kurumbas, Morias, Savaras, Ho &amp; Munda&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>South Indian Tribes&nbsp;&#8211; Mottur village in TN &#8211; headless(god refused to come in hard time so local cut of head) anthromorphic statue c\/a Valiyar Vadu&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Eastern\u00a0 Indian Tribes\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Savaras of odisa<\/strong>&#8211; Gaur ceremony- on death of member( underworld re) &#8211; menhir errection&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Ho &amp; Munda of Chotanagpur<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; resembles Khasi Mehhir -&gt; first cremate body, collect ashes &amp; bones &amp; then put in grave&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>North Eastern Tribes\u00a0(similarities b\/w N.E &#038; S.E tribes )\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Garos<\/strong>&nbsp;(Meghalaya) &#8211;&nbsp;<strong>Y shaped wooden<\/strong>&nbsp;erected in memory (b. prevent misfortune) as in Indonesia &amp; Oceania<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Khasis<\/strong>&nbsp;(Meghalaya) &#8211; all 4 types all around Khasi hills, locally k\/n as \u201c<strong>kynmaw<\/strong>&nbsp;(<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Oldowan Culture &#8211; Short Notes<\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p>The earliest tools tools have been grouped together in Oldwan tradition.Named so because tools of this type of first uncovered in lower beds at oldowan gorge.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Range of Culture: East Africa to Southern &amp; Northern Africa, later Asia (tropical &amp; ST) as hominids moved out of Africa, later temp. -early inhabitants of European &amp; vallonet cave on the shore of the Mediterranean in southern France&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Earliest Oldowan tools &#8211; Rift valley System of East Africa;&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Koobi fora(Peninsula) Near Lake Turkana in Kenya &#8211; tools similar to Olduvai gorge dated back to 1.89 my to .4 mya by Glynn Isaac&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Time Period<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Human Species-&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>earliest ancestor veg (lacked large flesh ripping canines of other carnivorous animals) -> cultural soln (making tool) than biological change to have meet\n<ul>\n<li>Addition of diet may be the reason of the success&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>not clear whether made by East African gracile (austropithecines) hominids(may be meat eater ; tool took over some function (like preparation before eating -&gt; unspecialised tooth pattern due to expanded no. of food)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Less likely by robusts, as shown by dental specialisation (veg) &#8211; less cultural adaptations&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Climate &amp; Econiche&nbsp;&#8211; seems Savanna ecosystem; diet grassland plant &amp; animal, near water bodies ; conscious control over the env: change env with behaviour or, if not possible change behaviour acc to env.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Natural selection began to select best culture (smart hunter &amp; tool user -&gt; better survival strategies.) -&gt; select more complex brain&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Technology&nbsp;&#8211; Percussion Flaking ( Types 1. Hammer Stone 2. Anvil Hammer)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Material&nbsp;&#8211; Quartzite&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tools&nbsp;&#8211; chopper ( remained flakes may have been used b\/w finger &amp; thumb as effective cutting or scraping tool) , later burins &amp; hide scrapers also appeared&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Society&nbsp;&#8211; Force of group cohesion -&gt; Food Sharing (group division to find &amp; then combine to eat)&nbsp; (not in other primates, chimpanzee but rarely) &amp; cooperative behaviour in food getting ; systematic hunting imp part (<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Hunting hypothesis<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;by S.&nbsp;<strong>Washburn &amp; C.S Lancaster<\/strong>&nbsp;&#8211; hunting -&gt; division of labour (men hunting in band, female in camp, gathering food &amp; caring .<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>case among many non human primates &amp; human societies&nbsp; -&gt; eg. Baboon (highly evolved division of labour &amp; social control.)&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Hominids may have developed &#8211; permanent pair bonds b\/w M&#038;F ->\n<ul>\n<li>to reduce aggression b\/w males&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Allow integration into co-bonding -&gt; lessened sexual jealousy by limiting promiscuity&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Males would also help in protection &amp; arranging food for female &amp; child&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>communication system to make this all this cooperative behaviour possible.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Early Migration from Africa&nbsp;: Outside Africa first species was : Homo errectus -&gt; may have followed herds of savanna harbivores&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Migration was accombined by more technological sophistication -&gt; allowed hominids to move into colder regions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>During Gunz &amp; Mindel glaciation &#8211; some lived into temperate of Europe &amp; in Riss glaciation in more colder area&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>During this time&nbsp; oldowan culture split into 2 diff culture &amp; geographical groups (separated by mountain barriers) &#8211;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mountain belt : Himalayas in east, Caucasus &amp; Zagros&nbsp; in SW Asia &amp; Carpathians inn SE Europe.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>East &amp; North of belt &#8211; elaboration of oldwan c\/a&nbsp;Chopper tool culture&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>West &amp; south of belt &#8211; evolved life style &amp; way of making tools, spl,. Handaxe , kn as&nbsp;Acheulean culture.\u0913\u0947\u0938\u0942\u0932\u093f\u092f\u0928&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Due to apparently distinct adaptive difference due to diff. Env , it is likely that two separate culture types existed at this time&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Acheulean Tradition&nbsp;<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Climate &amp; Econich : grassland , tropical &amp; subtropical latitudes -&gt; optimum env for large &amp; medium sized animals&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Time Period : First appeared in. 1.2 may at Olduvai Gorge. Also found in Middle East, Africa &amp; Java. In Europe till appearance of Mousterian tradition.&nbsp; &amp; during end of tradition i.e during Riss glaciation -&gt; moved into more colder regions -&gt; started hunting mammoths (tundra survivor)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Human species : Homo errectus&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool : Hand axe (logical improvement &#8211; two sharp edge meeting at one point.) &#8211;&nbsp; may be skinning, butchering &amp; digging ) , cleaver (instead of point -3rd cutting edge<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Technology : evolved in several stages ; Soft hammer tech (control size &amp; shape of flakes by bone or a stick as hammer ) &#8211; thinner axe&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Material : Stone &amp; Bone &amp; Wood&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sociocultural&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Hunting large size tundra feddder animals , mammoth, in colder region<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Controlled use of fire for warmth &amp; cooking -&gt; Vertesszollos (chopper tool site &#8211;&nbsp; 0.45 mya) &amp; Torralba , Spain &#8211; bits of charcoal &amp; charred bones&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Shelter, culture adaptation due to cold weather, but seasonal moments also&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>More systematic hunter&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Chopper Tool Culture&nbsp;<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Found in more env &amp; geographical ranges that Acheulean ; intermixed in Europe, N&amp;E of Acheulian in East Asia, SE Asia : In India East of Indus River&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Time Period : Holstein Interglacial (before Riss Glacialtion)&nbsp; ,which began around 425,000 year ago<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tools : Lacked handax<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tool Tech : Bipolar Working : (removal of flakes by striking against anvil, require percussion effect at both end of flakes )<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sociocultural&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Mostly deer bone from food debris, elephants, rhin, bison, water buffalos etc&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Occasionally , Cannibalism (meat of same species) &#8211; Choukoutien, near Peking&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Palaeolithic In India&nbsp; Definition&nbsp;&#8211; Cultural debbrise from entire period of&nbsp;Pleistocene (3mya-10,000 BC)&nbsp;is termed as Palaeolithic&hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"om_disable_all_campaigns":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"_uf_show_specific_survey":0,"_uf_disable_surveys":false,"footnotes":""},"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v22.1 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>1.1: Evolution of Indian Culture and Civilization - Observing The Mortals<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.observingthemortals.com\/index.php\/1-1-evolution-of-indian-culture-and-civilization\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"1.1: Evolution of Indian Culture and Civilization - Observing The Mortals\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Palaeolithic In India&nbsp; 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