Culture(begin with appearance of first species of genus homo around 2.4 mya-tool making man) (behaviour & belief acc. to Tylor) is a intangible reality which can’t be photographed ro hold hence the culture of past is identified & studed through the products of culture or antiquity (witness of behaviours)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Analystical types naming based on structure but can’t attribute function to it. ; tech + morphology \u2192 typology <\/strong>(function can’t be base of analysis)<\/p>\n\n\n\n Analysis behaviour with taking of behaviour \u2192 by Interpretation (objective analysis)<\/p>\n\n\n\n Prehistory – term to describe the period before written history so data provided by various natural & soical sciences like paleontology, biology, archaeology, geology, comparative linguistic, anthropology, molecular genetics & many other <\/p>\n\n\n\n End marked by appearance of written records <\/p>\n\n\n\n order in which series of events happened, earth 4.5 bya<\/strong> & life appeared 3.5 bya<\/strong> & evolved through various forms<\/p>\n\n\n\n geologists & paleontologists \u2192 geological chronology of major events & along with change in life form \u2192 various eras & epochs<\/p>\n\n\n\n Cultural chronology (about cultural evolution – animal ancestry to toolmaker onwards) – Prehistorian in collab with geologists, paleontologists, phyysicists, climatologist & other<\/p>\n\n\n\n We use the same terminology as suggested by Lartet<\/strong>, but having stricter definitional controls on them <\/p>\n\n\n\n * Time period mentioned with reference to India<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n Geological Time Period earliest of human culture began during late Pliocene Epoch <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Climate – lasted through glacial advances & retreated of Pleistocene. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Economy – Subsistence type – Hunting & Gathering <\/p>\n\n\n\n Tool-Tech. – stone tools prepared with low expenditure of energy in mfg. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Tool Material – Quatrit<\/strong> (India)<\/p>\n\n\n\n Dwelling – Mobile lifestyle – caves, huts, tooth or skin hovels, mostly by rivers & lakes <\/p>\n\n\n\n Society – A band of edible plant gathers & hunters (25-100 )<\/p>\n\n\n\n Religion – belief in after life first appeared in upper paleolithic – burial rituals & ancestor worship <\/p>\n\n\n\n Subdivision – as cover such a long time span based on cultural features; no correlation with geological phases of Pliocene<\/p>\n\n\n\n The transition between Paleolithic culture & the first cultures having agriculture. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Geological Time Period – Earlies Holocene culture <\/strong>which shows no indication of change in economy from palaeolithic <\/p>\n\n\n\n Climate – <\/p>\n\n\n\n Economy – Subsistence type – Hunting & Gathering; In India in later phase started domesticating animals <\/p>\n\n\n\n Dwelling – Mobile lifestyle – caves, huts, tooth or skin hovels, mostly by rivers & lakes <\/p>\n\n\n\n Society – Tribes & Bands <\/p>\n\n\n\n Tool-Tech. – Microlithization & Hafting of tools on organic handles. Composite Tools Mfg <\/strong>lead to specialisation in microlithic types<\/p>\n\n\n\n Tool Material – Agate(India)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Tool Types – microlithic <\/p>\n\n\n\n last stage, which precedes the discovery of Metals – invention of agri to metalworking <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Geological Time Period<\/p>\n\n\n\n Climate – <\/p>\n\n\n\n Economy – Neolithic Revolution : Food production through regular agriculture, Animal domestication, <\/p>\n\n\n\n Social Life – Sedantism Settled in smaller villages in circular or rectangular houses of Mud and reed & <\/p>\n\n\n\n Tool-Tech. – Polished Tools and Numerous weapons as tools of Bones (<\/p>\n\n\n\n Tool Material – Dyke, Basalt,Dolomite<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Pottery : First tym ; Burzahom<\/strong> – coarse grey pottery, hand made but in later period footwheel was used<\/p>\n\n\n\n Tool Types – <\/p>\n\n\n\n Bimbetka in MP, Belan Valley in UP and Narmada Valley have prehistoric art<\/u> belonging to all the 3 phases.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n former is more accepted as metallurgical knowledge evidence can only be found in site of ore production & no archaeological record can demonstrate the existence of such knowledge <\/p>\n\n\n\n Dwelling – Farmsteads <\/p>\n\n\n\n it was the first sign shaping the environment by learned patterns of behaviour, rather than just adapting to it biologically by primitive hominids or first sign of culture development\u2192 through them we can know about their material culture <\/p>\n\n\n\n Paintings<\/u><\/strong> were the first time to know about their non-material culture<\/strong> – started around 20k or 30k back<\/p>\n\n\n\n Tools were made by keeping one stone fixed and striking it with another stone. –<\/p>\n\n\n\n ? From Kirna\u2019s NTA <\/p>\n\n\n\n Are the material things people leave behind them & are retrieved by archeologist from the earth. May be collected from the surface of the sire or dug up. <\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201c Albert C. Spaulding<\/u><\/strong>– archeology can be defined in its essence, as the study of the interrelation of form, location in space, & location in time exhibited by artefacts.\u201d <\/p>\n\n\n\n Generally, people live three kind of remains<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Analysing the Archaeological Remains<\/u> – <\/strong>3 fundamental task <\/p>\n\n\n\n The dating techniques deal with measurement of age of tangible (ancient) objects<\/strong>. The temporal studies are necessary to assess evolutionary change, cultural development & technological innovations. <\/p>\n\n\n\n The dating methods can be divided into 2 types <\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n it refers to dating methods that determine whether one particular fossil, artefacts, fossil locality or site dates before or after another. I.e Comparative study<\/strong> is done before the archeological find is placed in a date sequence. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Even, Acc to wheeler (1956)<\/u><\/strong> – The relative chronology<\/strong> is the arrangement of the products of non-historic societies into a time relationship, which may not have any dates, but which has a sequence..\u201d <\/p>\n\n\n\n These are very useful techniques despite the fact<\/strong> that dating is not done in absolute term <\/strong>but in relation to some other material. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Various methods of Relative Dating Include<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\nTerminology in Archeology <\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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Evolution of Designation of Cultural Past <\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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Irregularities outside Europe & Mediterranean to measure advancement by Three Age System <\/h3>\n\n\n\n
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Chronology in Prehistory <\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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Chrono-Cultural Ages <\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Palaeolithic : <\/h3>\n\n\n\n
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Mesolithic (10k-6k)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
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Neolithic (6k-4k)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
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Chalcolithic <\/h3>\n\n\n\n
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How Climate impact? <\/h3>\n\n\n\n
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Why initiation of tool making so important ? <\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Why tools? – Mostly involved in food getting & later on protection. <\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Tool Technology & Evolution <\/h3>\n\n\n\n
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\n\n\n\nExcavation Process : Site Finding <\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Archeological Remains <\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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\n\n\n\nDating Methods In Anthropology <\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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Relative Dating <\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Method <\/strong><\/td> Introduction – discovery <\/strong><\/td> Basis\/Principle +Method<\/strong><\/td> Limitations <\/strong><\/td> Comments <\/strong><\/td><\/tr> Stratigraphy<\/strong><\/td> Basic RDT; pioneered by Niels Stensen <\/strong>in the 17th C. The aim of stratigraphy is to reconstruct the history of deposition of site\u2019s remain. <\/td> \u2022 Based on Law of superposition of <\/strong>Strata <\/strong>proposed by Stensen.\u2022 It states that , <\/strong>in any succession of rock layers, the lowest most have been there the longest & the upper layers have been in place for progressively shorter periods.\u201d\u2022 Thus in an Ar site the evidences are usually deposited in chronological order – lower stratum – oldest ; upper most contain – most recent <\/td> \u2022 Most Robust<\/strong>relative dating methods & among RDT most reliable<\/strong>technique \u2022 The paleo anthropologist \/ archeologist must ensure that there has been no disturbance of layers <\/td> \u2022 Geological stratigraphy & archeological stratigraphy are created by different process & must be interpreted separately. \u2022 the succession gets reversed<\/strong> if the depositional agency has the power of constantly getting lower in level thr time<\/strong> (e.g river banks – i.e river terraces or terrace stratigraphy don\u2019t follow this principle b\/c of the erosional activity of fluctuating water level<\/strong>. <\/td><\/tr> Seriation<\/u><\/strong> ( Sequence Dating) aka Artifact Sequencing <\/td> \u2022 Prehistoric not strongly attached to sites \u2192 long cultural stratigraphic seq -rarity. Short seq rule. Which must be related by different methods Seriation. \u2022 It\u2019s is RDT , used to date archeological objects \/ involves reconstructing the pattern of cultural dev. \u2022 <\/strong>invented by Egyptologist Sir William Flinders Petrie <\/strong>in 1899. <\/td> \u2022 Based on assumption that any particular artifact, attribute or style will appear gradually, increase in popularity until it reaches a peak, & then progressively decreases. \u21a0 \u2022 archeologist are able to place categories of artefacts in a relative chronological order \/ series based on +ne\/-ne or frequencies of shared attributes. <\/td> \u2022 there\u2019s no way to know which end of a serrated sequence of artifacts is the oldest unless it is determined by stratigraphic or chronometric methods. \u2022 I.e by itself is incomplete as reveals pattern of cultural change – but not direction of cultural change \u2022 Even, culture doesn\u2019t alway change from simple to complex ; may be reverse or cycle too <\/td> \u2022 is used by James Deetz <\/strong>in studying & dating gravestones in New England. \u2192 indicate gradual emergence & replacement of several motives on grave stones which indicates the changes in local beliefs & trade pattern. \u2022 Gradually being replaced in archeological research by a quantitative method c\/l correspondence analysis, <\/strong>which achieves the same end <\/td><\/tr> Palaeontology\/ Dating by using Animal Remain <\/strong><\/td> <\/td> \u2022 On, changed climate will bring about the occurrence of different animals & plant species.\u2022 with change in climate, some species become extinct\u2022 ex – high frequency of domesticated over wild \u21a0 +nce of animal husbandry \u2022 if found with particular animals , wooly mammoth \ud83e\udda3 \u2192 <\/td> \u2022 this method provides approximate age of objects, if not accurate, b\/c the compete species may not disappear at the same time. Some might live in isolated areas. \u2022 some live in wide range of climates \u2022 inference about climate tolerance of s, not changed over millennia – not safe.<\/td> E.g Evidence of Elephas antiquus (a forest elephant) indicates temperate climate & that of E. Primigenius (a steppe elephant) indicates a steppe \/ tundra env. \u2022 small species like rodents & birds, some molluscs & snails are very sensitive to climate change. Their +nce\/-nce indicate climate change<\/td><\/tr> Polynology or Pollen Analysis <\/strong><\/td> \u2022 Palynology is the study of Pollen grains, – can be used ot reconstruct prehistoric climate & date of deposits. \u2022 Lenhar Von Post <\/strong>(of Sweden), developed this method in 1916. \u2022 a