{"id":607,"date":"2025-09-21T04:02:45","date_gmt":"2025-09-21T04:02:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.observingthemortals.com\/?page_id=607"},"modified":"2025-09-21T04:02:47","modified_gmt":"2025-09-21T04:02:47","slug":"5-0-religion","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.observingthemortals.com\/index.php\/5-0-religion\/","title":{"rendered":"5.0: Religion"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Religion is one of the oldest <strong>behavioural pattern<\/strong>. It is defined as&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Etymologically it come from <strong><u>Religare<\/u><\/strong> \u2192 to tie or to bind together<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>France Sociologist, <strong><u>Emile<\/u><\/strong><strong><u>Durkheim<\/u><\/strong> in his <strong>\u201cElementary form of religious life\u201d <\/strong>defined religion as &#8211; \u201cA unified system of beliefs &amp; practices relative to sacred things, things which are set apart &amp; forbidden, belief &amp; practices which unite into one single <strong>moral community<\/strong> called church, all those who adhere to them.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Religion<\/u><\/strong> has moral basis b\/c it imposes a moral pressure upon people to act in accordance with what is believed to be right or proper.\n<ul>\n<li>Offer pattern of social control. As guilt feeling &#8211; wether or not he is acutely caught &amp; punished.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Definition by <strong><u>Melford E. Sapiro<\/u><\/strong>: An institution consisting of culturally partnered interaction with culturally postulated superhuman being.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Religion is set of attitudes, beliefs, &amp; practises pertaining to supernatural power, whether that power rests in forces, ghosts or <strong>demons. <\/strong>And approached by their believers with set of <strong>rites &amp; rituals <\/strong>for fulfilment of various needs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Rites<\/u><\/strong> : Act which is directed to some Supernatural entity<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Ritual<\/u><\/strong> : Complex org of rites of particular occasion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Dynamic ness of Religion Due to<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Rites, Ritual &amp; Beliefs<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Society distinguish b\/w two level of reality; (i.e phenomena are divided)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>profane or the ordinary every day natural world<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sacred or the extraordinary supernatural world\n<ul>\n<li>Supernatural power believed to be not human or not subject to the laws of nature<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Acc to <strong>Durkheim<\/strong>, Religion only consist of sacred phenomena only<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What is considered supernatural varies from society to society &#038; also within society at a given time or over time.\n<ul>\n<li>Illnesses &#8211; natural action of bacteria &amp; viruses or result of supernatural force<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In Judeo-Christian traditions, floods, earthquake, volcanic eruptions, comets &amp; epidemic were considered but not now<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Similarity, what is considered sacred in one society may not be considered in another.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>4 Supernatural System in Simple Societies<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Religion<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Magic<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Totem<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Taboo<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><em><u>Modern definition<\/u><\/em><\/strong><em> &#8211; shifted from SN \u2192 it as cultural system<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><em>Acc to <\/em><strong><em>Geertz<\/em><\/strong><em>, &#8220;A religion is a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic&#8221;. This definition emphasizes four aspects:<\/em>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Religion is a body of things such a uch as ideas, objects, norms, myths and rituals.<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>These things signify something with deep meaning or symbols for the people involved.<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>This body of things or symbols constitutes an ordered system of knowledge about the nature of the world, about the way the world is organized ideally and about the rules people have to follow and behave to bring ideally organized world.<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Religion also presents this body of knowledge in such a context of reality, reverence and mystery that people want to believe it, to use it as a guide for behavior and actually do.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><em><u>Conclusion<\/u><\/em><\/strong><em> &#8211; Thus all the definitions of religion emphasis that religion is a kind of human behaviour that the constituents of religion are beliefs &amp; rituals concerned with supernatural elements &amp; that religion is a part of the culture of every human society.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Universality of Religion<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>R belief &amp; practices are found in all known contemporary societies<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Archeologist -found evidence of religion beliefs 60,000 years ago &#8211; buried with objects for afterlife<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Artistic production for religious purpose &#8211; 30,000 year ago &#8211; ex with ample 2\u00b0 sexual characteristics \u2640sculptures &#8211; may have been fertility charms<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Many social scientists &#8211; particularly anthropologist, sociologists, &amp; psychologists &#8211; have offered theories to account its universality.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Approaches To Study Religion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Introduction &#8211; Definition of Religion, As Religion is one of the oldest <strong>behavioural pattern<\/strong>. Thus many social scientists &#8211; particularly anthropologist, sociologist &amp; psychologists (Now newly emerging from Neurologist) have offered theories to account for its origin, purpose &amp; it universality.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Most think that religions are created by humans in response to certain <strong><u>universal needs or conditions<\/u><\/strong>. Few are<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>a need for intellectual understanding,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>reversion to childhood feelings,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>anxiety and uncertainty,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>a need for community, and<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>a need for cooperation.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Evolutionary Approach<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Shows religion as problem solving phenomenon.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>John Lublock<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; English \u24c5,\n<ul>\n<li>first attempted to study Religion in <strong>evolutionary manner&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In his \u201c<strong>The origin of civilisation &amp; Primitive condition of Man<\/strong>\u201d outlined following evolutionary scheme<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Atheism<\/strong> \u2192 Fetishism \u2192 Nature worship \u2192 Totemism \u2192 Shamanism \u2192 Anthropomorphism \u2192 Monotheism \u2192 Ethical Monotheism<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>E.B Tylor<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Said &#8211; Religion originated in people\u2019s speculations about dreams, trances &#038; death. I.e for intellectual understanding\u00a0 And defined it as belief in supernatural being\n<ul>\n<li>In his \u201c<strong>Primitive Culture\u201d(1871)<\/strong>&nbsp; outlined following evolutionary scheme<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Animism (earliest &amp; Most basic form) \u2192 Fetishism \u2192 Belief in demons \u2192 polytheism \u2192 Monotheism<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Animism<\/u><\/strong> (the belief in <strong>soul or a dual existence<\/strong> for all things &#8211; physical(body) &#038; psychic (soul) ) earliest form of religion)\n<ul>\n<li>As appearing in dreams ,even after death<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>He said religion is <strong>Cultural universal.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Criticism<\/strong> &#8211; to intellectual &#8211; not dealing with emotions\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>R.R<\/u><\/strong><strong>Marett <\/strong>&#8211; it was to sophisticated to be idea of origin<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Herbert Spencer <\/u><a href=\"tel:+9118201903\"><u>(1820-1903<\/u><\/a><u>)<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>\u201c<strong>Principle of Sociology\u201d (1898)<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Similar approach as Taylor, but stressed on <strong>ancestor worship <\/strong>as basic form<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>James Frezer<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>\u201c<strong>The golden Bough\u201d (1890)<\/strong> &#8211; tried to construct universal theory of magic, religion &amp; S<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Religion \u2192 Result of dev of original magic stage of human culture<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Magic Theory<\/u> : <\/strong>Primitive man \u2192 believed in overwhelming &amp; instrumentalising supernatural thr magic \u2192 eventually similar belief about spirits by pleasing them thr prayers to solve his problems &amp; needs.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/c4ea6f9d-2200-4ae3-2b6c-0475b736b2d5\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Emile Durkheim<\/u> &#8211; <\/strong>For him, <strong>evolutionary advancement<\/strong> of Religion is emergence of <strong><u>specific, analytic, profane<\/u><\/strong> ideas about \u2018cause\u2019 or category\u2019 or relationship from diffuse, global sacred images\n<ul>\n<li>Emotion of individual + collective consciousness in social environment \u2192 shapes individual\u2019s religious feelings<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Psychological Approch<\/u><\/strong> &#8211;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Religion as emotional response<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Robert Marrett<\/u><\/strong> &#8211;\n<ul>\n<li>He suggested Religion is not problem solving phenomena\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Profound emotional response<\/strong> to aspects characterised by emotional Overtunes.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>emotional aspects \u2192\u00a0 origin of \u24c7 ; theories based on such assumption are c\/l <strong><u>Emotive theories<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Emotive factors, according to various schlors, are as follows:\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Wilhelm wundt<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Religion &#8211; projection of <strong><u>fear<\/u><\/strong> into envi.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Fetishism<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; emotional attachment to some object<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Marrett<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; <strong>Animatism<\/strong> = basis of Religion<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Acc to <strong><u>William James<\/u> &#8211; <\/strong>Unspecified Emotions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Also suggested <strong>Animatism<\/strong> &#8211; a belief in impersonal supernatural forces (e.g., the power of a rabbit\u2019s foot)\u2014preceded the creation of spirits<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Sigmund Freud<\/u><\/strong> \u2192\u00a0the father of psychoanalysis\n<ul>\n<li>deep, subconscious psychological conflict in social group is responsible for development of religion<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Traces origin to family<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>child seeking to work out adequate r\/l with parents (especially) father \u2192&nbsp; Regards father as symbol of absolute power.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>As grows \u2192 father&#8217;s supremacy as untenable (due to dynamics in to&nbsp; family owing to oedipus complex) :<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Religion \u2192 fills the vacuum. \u2192 father substitute.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>thus origin of religion \u2192&nbsp; man&#8217;s belief in <strong>cosmic father<\/strong> to give him support once he had from his bio logical father.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Totemism<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; dev as psychological response to sexual competition b\/w father &amp; son.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Story of tyrannical man<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; believed that early human being lived in group each of which was dominated by a tyrannical man, who kept all women for himself.\n<ul>\n<li>Freud postulated that sons on maturity were driven out of the group out of the group. Later they got together &amp; killed &amp; ate the hated father.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>But later on the sons felt enormous guilt &amp; remorse which they expressed by prohibition of killing of a Totem animal that it father substitute<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Subsequently on ritual occasion the Cannibalistic sene was repeated in the form of totem meal.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Freud believed that these early beliefs became transformed into worship of deity or Gods modelled after the father.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Recent advancement in psychological thought symbolic \u24b6 \u2192&nbsp; <strong>Clifford Geertz<\/strong> \u2192&nbsp; modem or primitive religion can be understood In <strong>integrated system of thought <\/strong>through <strong>symbolism<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Functional Approach<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>By relinquishing the apparently futile search for origin of religion, \u24b6 became more concerned about <strong>functional &amp; structural a\/c of religion<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Functional approach&nbsp; explains role religion plays in life on individual &amp; society. Functionalists, <strong>Malinowski &amp; Brown<\/strong>,&nbsp; believe that\u2019 part function therefore society continues.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Emile Durkheim<\/u><\/strong> &#8211;\n<ul>\n<li>Acc to him, Religion exist in social context i.e Religion is expression of way society orders his life, media thr which society understand universe.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Totemism<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; symbolic of god \u2192 totem ; Thus, God \u2192 personification of clan, Hence, all objects of Religion, symbolises social relationships &amp; led to continuity in social groups. (He wrongly supposed it to be virtually universal)&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Malinowski<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; acc to him religion has function of <strong>Tool of Adoption <\/strong>in upset state of mind &#038; <strong>is integrating force<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>He explained : Religion is intimately connected with emotional state of human i.e state of tension.\n<ul>\n<li>E.g <strong>Trobrianders Islanders<\/strong> \u2192 religious practices centred around fishing expedition.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Purpose of Religion<\/strong> &#8211; purge human mind of it\u2019s stress &#038; strain\n<ul>\n<li>As Tool of adoption in upset state of mind &#8211; i.e <strong>cathartic<\/strong> in action<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Secure mental, physical stability in individual\u2019s life.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Radcliffe Brown<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; take diff stand,\n<ul>\n<li>function is not cathartic but ; <strong>ultimate aim \u2192 social survival<\/strong> than of individual\u00a0 ; thr\n<ul>\n<li>Create feeling of <strong>dependence<\/strong> every<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Attaining individual <strong>concurrence<\/strong> on social norms.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Religion instal sense of dependence on human mind &amp; fear of supernatural brings adherence of social norms.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>E.g \u2192 <strong>study of religion of Andamanese Islanders <\/strong>\u2192 for them main SN entity \u2192 spirit of dead, which appear in natural phenomena as sky, sea \ud83c\udf0a<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Evan Pitchards<\/u><\/strong> &#8211;\n<ul>\n<li>in his study of <strong>witchcraft in Azande<\/strong> \u2192 it has to be understand in social context<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>M.N Srinivas<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>In his <strong>study of Coorg <\/strong>\u2192 very innovatively integrates social structure with Religion, which he finds operation At different levels (local, regional, peninsular &amp; all india)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Observes that various rituals bring <strong>social solidarity &amp; unity <\/strong>among diff social segments.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>British \u24b6, <strong><u>Raymond Firth<\/u>, <\/strong>Views religious org in terms of means for handling the fundamental problems of social org : \u201c For <strong>reducing uncertainty &amp; anxiety<\/strong>, for increasing coherence in human relationships, for assigning meaning to human endeavour, for providing justification for moral obligation.\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Few points of Malinowski &amp; Brown might appear opposed but they are not. they have to be taken as <strong>complementary features<\/strong> that is individuals is important to society &amp; society to Individual<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Structuralist Approach<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Studies religion in postulation of <strong>universal logical pattern to human mind<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Levi Strauss<\/strong> \u2192 tried to reveal <strong>grammar of mind,<\/strong> a kind of universal psychological Process which give rise to <strong>social structure<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Analyse <strong>Myths<\/strong> \u2192 Product of unconscious mind \u2192&nbsp; can be used to understand the way human mind interprete the world.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Religion<\/strong> \u2192 also product of <strong>Binary oppo<\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li>study of totemic phenomenon having <strong>BO. of Nature &amp; culture<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>thus strauss proposes that primitive religious systems are like all Symbolic systems, fundamentally <strong>Communication systems.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Dumont (1959)<\/strong> takes structuralist perspective of religion manifested in <strong><u>worship of village deiti<\/u><\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li>Opposition of pure&#8217; &amp; &#8216;impure&#8217; &amp; interdependency of both values in religious thought.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Symbolic approach<\/u><\/strong> \u2192<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>revamping of psychological approach<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>first recognised by <strong><u>Evan Pitchard<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Studies meaning of religion thr symbols, meanings giving by participants to rituals, &amp; it&#8217;s interpretation.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Victor Turner<\/u><\/strong> in study of <strong>Ndembu<\/strong> religious life\n<ul>\n<li>Ritual\n<ul>\n<li>Life crisis ritual<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ritual of affliction.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>shows that Ndembu society is greatly marked by diff. ceremonies along with <strong>symbolic meanings<\/strong> attached.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Clifford Geertz<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; religion as a part of <strong>Cultural system<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>symbols \u2192&nbsp; vehicle of culture.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>importance of religion in society to be Studied thr <strong>meanings<\/strong> attached to it by people.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Mary Douglas<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>sacred can be engraved in human minds with diff ways, thus it represent society.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Symbols carries meaning only when studied in interrelation with one another.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Religion is study of such symbols &amp; their meanings.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Thought all approaches differ in interpretation they show <strong><u>holism in study of religion<\/u><\/strong> &amp; all points out that Religion perform at-least following<strong><u> 3 functions<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Establish <strong>Social order<\/strong> \u2192 thus remove anxiety<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bring social solidarity<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Acting to reinforce the worldview<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Conclusion<\/u> &#8211; <\/strong>No Consensus about origin &amp; purpose but principle of complexity of Religion &amp; its\u2019 <strong>Dynamism <\/strong>is accepted by all&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>anthropomorphizing<\/u><\/strong>\u2014attributing human characteristics &#038; motivations to nonhuman, particularly supernatural, events.\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Anthropomorphizing<\/strong> may be an attempt to understand what is otherwise incomprehensible and disturbing.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Theories of Origin of Religion<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/bc3a62f1-2a7e-a231-f672-a4619b883bd7\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Monotheism &amp; Polytheism<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Religions differ in no of gods that their followers believe exist.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>A belief that there is only one god or oneness of god is referred as <strong>Monotheism. <\/strong>Ex &#8211; Judaism, Christianity &amp; Islam<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In contrast, a belief in existence of more than one god is known as <strong>Polytheism. <\/strong>Hinduism is polytheistic religion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Both often though in just numerical term, but history of religions warns against such oversimplification.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>There exist no historical evidence to prove one system older than other, but scholars assume <strong>Monotheism<\/strong> as higher form thus later developed.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In whatever form, polytheism was the norm for religion for thousand of years, while monotheism was very rare indeed.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Monotheism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Today, about half the world\u2019s population practices one form of monotheism or another. Yet for much of human history, it was far from popular.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It is not just oneness of god, but his uniqueness i.e expression of <strong>divine might &amp; power.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>In these the <\/em><strong><em><u>belief, value &amp; action system<\/u><\/em><\/strong><em> all three are determined in a significant way by the conception of God as one unique &amp; personal being.<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>The conception of all other religions as <\/em><strong><em><u>idolatry<\/u><\/em><\/strong><em><u> (i.e as rendering absolute devotion or trust to what is less than divine)<\/u> has often served to justify the destructive &amp; fanatical action of the religion that is considered to be the only true one.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Types<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong><u>Basic Monotheism<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Definition : believes only In one god.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Characteristics : rejects all other beliefs, calls them \u201c<strong>false religion<\/strong>\u201d<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>God of monotheism is personal god e.g. &#8211; Judaism, Islam, Christianity<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ol start=\"2\">\n<li><strong><u>Exclusive Monotheism<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>only one god exists, other gods do not exists at all or are failse\/ demons. eg- Islam, Christianity, Judaism<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Types of Exclusive Monotheism\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Ethical Monotheism<\/u> &#8211;<\/strong> man chooses god which he needs &amp; which he can adore<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Intellectual Monotheism<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; one god: logical result of question of origin of world.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Pluriform monotheism<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>only one main god &amp; others are manifestation of main divine god.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>effort solve problem of <strong>Divine Unity &amp; Divine Pluriformity<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>E.g <strong><u>kwoth<\/u><\/strong> spirit belief of <strong>Nuer tribe<\/strong> (a Nilotic pastoral people of E. sudan).\n<ul>\n<li>kwoth = spirit insky which manifests in diff forms.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Ogala sious<\/u><\/strong> of USA.\n<ul>\n<li>16 gods \u2192 divided in 4 groups but all eventually one \u2192 <strong>Wakan Tanka <\/strong>= the great spirit or the great mystery<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Religious Dualism<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Some \u24c7 \u2192 dualistic. views universe as having two <strong>basic binary opposite principles<\/strong> e.g- good &amp; evil, spirit &amp; matter.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Thus, concept of God &amp; Antigod which is variation of Monotheism<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>eg. zoroastrianism&nbsp; &#8211; Here <strong>Ormazd<\/strong> (good) <strong>Ahriman<\/strong> (evil god)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Polytheism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Most of the world\u2019s religion have been polytheistic, meaning that they worship a collection of gods, k\/n as a <strong>pantheon.<\/strong> These gods came in all shapes &#038; sizes, from animistic spirits of natural forces, like animals, trees, rivers etc.. to <strong>anthropomorphic<\/strong> gods, which take the shape &#038; characteristics of humans, to anything in between.\n<ul>\n<li><em>In it god is impersonal, rather than a divine fluid that permeates the world including \uc637 himself. So that Hinduism can say : <\/em><strong><em>tat tvam asi, <\/em><\/strong><em>literally \u201cthat is you\u201d where that refers to the single, supreme reality or principle.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It is Belief in many gods. sometimes have <strong>supreme creator or focus of devotion<\/strong> as in hinduism.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>sometimes hierarchy of god \u2192 one imp than others e.g- Buddhism.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Includes belief in many demonic &amp; ghostly forces.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Characterised virtually all religion other than Abrahamic religions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Types<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong><u>Henotheism<\/u><\/strong> aka Kathenotheism (Greek Kath hena theon &#8211; \u201cOne god at a time\u201d)\n<ul>\n<li>Belief in one main god, though worship of other gods is granted.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Popularised by <strong>Max Muller<\/strong> in his study of Indian religions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Eg &#8211; vedic hymas ; was popular among hgly centralised monarchical govt. esp &#8211; in some period in Babylonia &amp; Egypt<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Kathenotheism<\/u><\/strong> \u2192 Worship of various gods at a time.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Unlimited Polytheism<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>extreme poly. \u2192 belief in no. of gods of of diff names which can&#8217;t replace each-other.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Along with number of gods, there are also no. demons.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>eg classical of Greece, Rome, India where millions of god exist.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>Conclusion : Thus, analysis of history of \u24c7 reveals that spectrum of views falling b\/w Basic Mono, to unlimited polytheism are falling in continuum.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Problems : The choice of either monotheism, or polytheism, however, leads to <strong><u>problems<\/u><\/strong>, b\/c <strong><u>neither can give a satisfactory answer to all questions<\/u><\/strong> that may reasonably be put.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>The weakness of <strong><u>polytheism<\/u><\/strong> is especially revealed in the realm of questions about the ultimate origin of things,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>whereas <strong>monotheism<\/strong> runs into difficulties in trying to answer the question concerning the <strong>origin of evil in a universe<\/strong> under the government of one god.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>There remains always an antithesis b\/w the multiplicity of forms of the divine manifestations and the unity that can be thought or posited behind them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Sacred &amp; Profane<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Emile Durkheim<\/strong>, for first time, understood religion in two opposite categories of sacred &amp; profane. And acc to him the <strong>Dichotomy<\/strong> is universal &amp; <strong>precondition<\/strong> for existence of religion. These both <strong>reflect<\/strong> classification of human experience, world, cosmos &amp; all things surrounding them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Sacred &amp; Profane Dichotomy<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>On Study of <strong>Arunta Tribe<\/strong> E.D in his book, \u201c<strong>Elementary forms of religious beliefs\u201d (1912)<\/strong> shows dichotomy<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>These are like <strong>holy &amp; common<\/strong> i.e sacred is religiou<em><u>s<\/u><\/em> &#038; profane is non-religious\n<ul>\n<li>ED states that scared is superior to profane in terms of dignity &amp; seriousness.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Thus he defined religion in terms of sacred<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sacred things in contrast to profane, are set apart as sacred things will be polluted by profane.\n<ul>\n<li>Sacred things are forbidden and hedged with prohibitions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sacred is non-utilitarian &#038; profane is utilitarian.\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Sacred<\/strong> : That are held in respect \u2192 r\/l to <strong>supernatural<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Profane<\/strong> : consider to be items of utility \u2192 r\/l to <strong>worldly<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Durkheim<\/strong> has said that <strong><u>sacred order<\/u><\/strong> is symbolic representation of the <strong>social order<\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li>He proposed that totemism is not essential about that particular totemic emblem or thing, but it is about <strong>clan itself<\/strong> as symbolised by emblem. It is <strong>experience of social group alone<\/strong> that is capable fo generating in people the kind of <strong>intense feelings<\/strong> that sustains religion.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Totem represent <strong>sacred force energy<\/strong> that Durkheim called \u201c<strong>Mana\u201d \u2192 <\/strong>this force, which is external to human being, is nothing but society itself.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Thus Durkheim argued that <strong>sacred is not only social<\/strong>, but very form in which society represent itself to it\u2018s members<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>To approach sacred one must attain a degree of sacredness.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Sacred space and time<\/u><\/strong>: Sacred &amp; profane cannot exist at same place and time. There is special time &amp; place for religion and rituals (sacred things).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>E.D believes Sacredness is not result of exterior dimensions or interior properties of an object. But It is result of <strong>collective conscience i.e<\/strong> attributed by society to the object.e.g. holy water (<em>not chemical composition nor god revealed this as sacred but collective cons)<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Acc to <strong><u>Mircea Eliade<\/u><\/strong>, man becomes aware of the sacred b\/c it <strong>manifests itself,<\/strong> shows itself as something <strong>wholly different<\/strong> from profane.\n<ul>\n<li>He uses the term <strong><u>Heinrophanies (other worldly)<\/u><\/strong> for sacred since it does not belong to our own world and can appear before us in the most varied guises.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>E.g. in a stone or tree, the person of holy man or in earthquake &amp; epidemics<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This dichotomy, according to <strong>Eliade &amp; Durkheim <\/strong>is universally part of human existence. <strong>Evans Pritchard<\/strong> has observed the dichotomy among the <strong><u>Nuer community in ritual performance<\/u><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>W. E. H. Stanner<\/u><\/strong> in his remarkable <strong>monograph on aboriginal religion<\/strong> has introduced a third category called &#8220;<strong>Mundane<\/strong>&#8216; <strong>abolishing the dualism<\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li>Concept of intermediate sphere \u2192 where sacred is not regarded as antagonistic<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>However he said that, especially in the study of aboriginal Australians, the opposition of sacred and profane has found regular employment.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Origin of sacred<\/u> : <u>By E.D<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>he rejected theories of origin of Religion based on <strong>animism &amp; naturism<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Origin of sacred can be found in <strong><u>totemism<\/u><\/strong> of Australian aborigines. There exists sacred association b\/w a <strong>clan, its members &amp; the totemic entity,<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In <strong>Arunta tribe<\/strong> totem is worshiped as it is believed to be saviour of the clan.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Criticism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Lloyd Warner<\/u><\/strong> has opposed the concept that sacred order is a symbolic representation of the social order.\n<ul>\n<li>said that sacred and profane dichotomy cannot be used to show the social order.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>British Anthropologist <strong><u>Jack Goody<\/u><\/strong> criticised Durkheim&#8217;s claim of universality of this dichotomy of all religions or cults.\n<ul>\n<li>Many societies do not have words that translate into sacred or profane.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The dichotomy was just a product of European religious thought rather than universally applicable criteria.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Some <strong><u>eastern religions<\/u><\/strong> like Buddhism disapprove this dualism and preach middle way.&nbsp; \u2192 i.e let go all conceptualisation of good or bad, S or P<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Conclusion<\/u><\/strong>: Thus though opposed by some, sacred and profane dichotomy can be used to separate supernatural affairs from worldly affairs in human societies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Criticism of Sacred &amp; Profane<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Despite profound influence on <strong>structural-functionalist<\/strong> school of British \u24b6 , many criticised.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Evans-Pitchard<\/u><\/strong>while studying <strong>Azande<\/strong> in C.Africa, argued that the sacredness might be <strong>situational<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Ex &#8211; shrines for Ancestor worship in <strong>Azande<\/strong> were Occasionally used for rituals, rest of the time for resting spears<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>W.E.H. Stanner<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Distinction was impossible to apply unambigously in studying Austrelian religion.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>gave concept of mundane.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Jack Goody<\/u><\/strong> many societies do not have words that translate as Sacred or profane. Thus, just like distinction b\/w natural &amp; superaturat, it was very much product of european religious thought than universal applicable.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Sacred &amp; Profane Since Durkheim<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>American anthropologist <strong><u>W.Lloyd Warner<\/u><\/strong> \u2192 with his FW in New England town of Austrelia which he called \u201c<strong>Yankee City<\/strong>&#8221;\n<ul>\n<li>Wrote <strong>&#8220;The Living and the Dead (1959) \u2192<\/strong> focused on Memorial day rites \u2192&nbsp; which he observes are modern cult of dead &amp; conforms to Durkheim&#8217;s definition of sacred Collective representation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Mary Douglas<\/u><\/strong> in her classic work \u201c<strong>Purity and Danger\u201d (1966)<\/strong> Proposed sweeping crosscultural analysis of rules concerning <strong>Purity &amp; pollution <\/strong>which confirms Durkheim&#8217;s central thesis that religious ideas depended on active seperation of antithetical domains<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Myth &amp; Ritual<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Myth<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Etymological word originated from Greek word \u201cMythos\u201d meaning Saying or story etc<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>However according to <strong><u>Notes &amp; Quarries<\/u><\/strong>, Myths are generally culture stories, culture specific, providing reason for status quo.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In words of <strong><u>Robert segal<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; Myth are stories about \u201cSomething significant\u201d<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Anthropologist <strong><u>Bruce Lincoln<\/u><\/strong> defines myth as \u201cideology in narrative form.\u201d<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It is a <strong>symbolic narrative<\/strong> of unknown origin, party traditional and relates to actual events and is especially associated with religious beliefs.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Mythology<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; is study of myths<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Characteristics\/features of myth<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>Myth existed in every society.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It is basic constituent of human culture.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>There is so great variety of myths that it is very difficult to generalise about nature of myths.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>A person&#8217;s myth reflects his\/her self-image.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Unquestioned validity<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Presents itself as authoritative factual account<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Specific accounts of gods &amp; supernatural beings&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Functions\/Importance&nbsp; of myth<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Functionalist like <strong>Malinowski &amp; Durkheim <\/strong>gave importance of myth as<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Explanation<\/u><\/strong> of facts whether natural or cultural\n<ul>\n<li>Myth about origin of corn in Abenaki (N. Americal Indian) Tribe.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>myth from Indonesian island about origin of life on earth.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Justification or validation<\/u><\/strong>: Explanation of ritual, cultic customs &amp; particular behaviour of individuals, thus <strong>agency of social control<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Exhibits social power of <strong><u>solidarity<\/u><\/strong>like <strong>religion<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Legitimise<\/u><\/strong>social structure &amp; thus help in preparing <strong>charter<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Description<\/u><\/strong>: especially \u201cunexplained\u201d i.e what human can never see for themselves) ; like Origin of world, end of world e.g&nbsp; Preindustrial society\u2019s myth.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Healing &amp; Inspiration<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; e.g creating myths are recited when individual is sick in <strong>Navajo Indians of N. America<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Theories About Myths<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Malinowski&#8217;s functional theory<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Malinowski Propounded that Myths are <strong>more than idle speculation<\/strong> about origin of things.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It <strong>justifies<\/strong> by precedence the existing things or order and it supplies a retrospective pattern of moral <strong>values<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Believing in myth is more than <strong>infantile self-assurance<\/strong>; it is a <strong>device of education &amp; learning<\/strong> of cultural and religious maintenance.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Myths are important component of transition rites. They restate the first principle &amp; belief system upon which people&#8217;s beliefs &amp; social postulates rest.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>They are the fertile seabed from which grew the sacred book of great religions of later civilisations.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Victor Tuner<\/u> &#8211; <\/strong><em>Myths relate how one state of affairs became another: how an unpeopled world became populated; how chaos became cosmos; how immortals became mortal; how the seasons came to replace a climate without seasons; how the original unity of mankind became a plurality of tribes or nations, how androgynous beings became men and women and so on. Myths are liminal phenomena: they are frequently told at a time or in a site that is betwixt and between&#8221;.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Structural analysis of myths: (Claude Levi Strauss)<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>As there is need to classify one of the <strong><u>Universal mental characteristics<\/u><\/strong> which is <strong><u>myths<\/u><\/strong> ;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Strauss applied structuralism in analysis of myth &amp; proponent that human has <strong><u>Universal Mental Structure<\/u><\/strong> that leads to people everywhere <strong>think similarly <\/strong>regardless of socio-cultural background.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>One of basic mental characteristics is to <strong>classify<\/strong> &#8211; which is done by humans in <strong>binary opposition<\/strong>, good &amp; evil, white &amp; black<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Myth is used to reflect on &amp; symbolically mediate or resolve universal &amp; culturally specific contradiction or oppositions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>There is binary opposition b\/w myths &amp; folk tales.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In the work \u201c <strong>The structural study of myth\u201d (1963)<\/strong> \u2192 claims that \u2018myth is a language\u2019 \u2192 analyse myth similar to lang \u2192 Break down in constituent elements c\/l <strong>\u201cMythemes\u201d <\/strong>(i.e simple building blocks of myths)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>After this analysis, he concluded that one myth can be converted into another thr a <strong>series of simple operations<\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li>Converting positive elements into negative<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Reversing order of elements<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Replacing gender of hero<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ex. Strauss\u2019s analysis of <strong>Cinderella<\/strong> converted to Ash boy.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Anthropological Views about Myths<\/u><\/strong> (not to include in Myth &amp; ritual question)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>19th century \u2192 &#8220;Nature mythology\u201d<\/u><\/strong> (Taylor &amp; Muller)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>E.B. Taylor<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>&#8220;Primitive man&#8221; concerned with <strong>natural world \u2192<\/strong> tried to explain this by attributing soul \u2192 &#8220;ANIMISM\u201d<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Thus origin of <strong>mythological ideas<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Also gave evolutionary sequence as Starting from mythological ideas &amp; gradually progressing towards scientific ideas<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Max Muller<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Myth \u2192 arising from <strong>language<\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li>\u201cdisease of language<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>due to lack of abstract nouns<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>James frazer<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Myths = <strong>misinterpretation<\/strong> of magical <strong>rituals<\/strong> (which themselves were misinterpretation of natural laws).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Human beings \u21d2 begin with unfounded belief in <strong>impersonal magic laws \u2192&nbsp; <\/strong>when not worked \u2192 started belief in S.N. powers Controlling nature \u2192\u00a0 thus rise of <strong>religious myths<\/strong> Meanwhile, <strong>continued<\/strong> to practice old magical rituals \u2192 thus myths used to justify them\n<ul>\n<li>thus Myths from Ritual&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>20th century<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Levi Strauss<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>myths reflect <strong>patterns<\/strong> in mind and these patterns are more as fixed mental structures, specifically pairs of binary opposition. + Product of unconscious mind \u2192&nbsp; thus useful to study basic undenying structure of society.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Malinowski<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Social function of myths.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u201cmythic charter\u201d \u2192 a legitimization for cultural norms &amp; social institutions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Eliade<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>In his \u2018<strong>Myths, Dreams and Mysteries<\/strong>\u2019 myth have some type of essential Connection to ultimate sacred things that transcend cultural specifics.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>21st century<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Postmodemism<\/u><\/strong> each account of myth has It&#8217;s own cuttural significance &#038; meaning\n<ul>\n<li>challenged precedence that texts only Can be medium for mythology, arguing that other media as visual arts or even place-naring, could be as important.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Current Relevance<\/u> \u2192<\/strong> movies, etc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Ritual<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>It is the performance of <strong>ceremonial acts<\/strong> prescribed by tradition or by sacerdotal (priestly) degree. In this <strong>social act<\/strong> participants reenact their relationship to sacred objects &amp; beliefs. As performed at specific time &amp; place so a <strong>rhythmic Act. <\/strong>It is basically based on \u201c<em>Do because the gods have done it so.<\/em>\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Human is a ritual being striking parallel between his ritual and verbal behaviour.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Religious ritual<\/u><\/strong>: It is an act involving manipulation of religious symbols.\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Religious symbols<\/u><\/strong> are of two types:\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Verbal<\/u><\/strong>: such as names of gods &amp; spirits, phrases or songs etc.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Non-verbal or material<\/u><\/strong> : such as masks, statues, paintings, costumes etc.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Types of religious rituals<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Junod (1908) &amp; Arnold Van Gennep (1908) <\/strong>divided into 2 parts<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Rites De passage<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; (Life, Birth, Marriage)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Rites of intensification<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Other two are often cited<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Individual rituals<\/strong> like vision quest<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Celestial ritual <\/strong>&#8211; by clergy<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Arnold Van Gennep<\/u> :<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Rites De Passage<\/strong> &#8211; these mark the <strong>transition<\/strong> of person from one social status to anther in almost all the societies e.g conception, birth, puberty, m\u2019age or death etc\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Features<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; these are important &amp; critical events of life cycle &amp; are surrounded by religious rituals.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Age set Society<\/u><\/strong> : here there are rituals during entry &amp; exit from one set to another.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>There phases of these rituals<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Seperation<\/strong> &#8211; Disengage from previous status &amp; role<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Transition<\/strong> &#8211; Removes barrier to new status<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Reintegration<\/strong> &#8211; Acceptance of newly acquired status<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Example : Marriage in Hindu Society<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Seperation<\/strong> of girl from old home<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Transition <\/strong>thr ritual into new status<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Reintegration<\/strong> new house, responsibilities.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Three phases of funerary rites<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Separation phase &#8211; demonstration of grief &amp; ceremonial burial<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Transition Phase &#8211; soul of dead taking form of ghost<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Incorporation phase &#8211; decreased is incorporated in new status of ancestor &amp; no longer dreaded<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Rites of Intensification<\/u><\/strong> : effect the group as a whole as <strong>result of environment changes.<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Ex &#8211; New Year, Baisakhi, Onam<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Acc to <strong>R.C Brown, <\/strong>rituals from core of standing <strong>socio-Cultural practices&nbsp;<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Ritualistic practices<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>are used individually or in combination to contact supernatural spirit<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Prayer<\/strong>: request, praising vow etc.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Offering &amp; sacrifices<\/strong>: first fruits of harvest are offered to god in Nuer.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Telling or acting of myths<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Altering physiological state of an individual<\/strong>: trance, visual hallucination.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Music, dance, drama.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Nature of Rituals<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Origin Approach<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>W. R. Smith<\/u><\/strong>: Sacrifice acts as communication b\/w primitive people and God. According to him origin of ritual is in totemism.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Frazer<\/u><\/strong>: Search led to magic.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Durkheim<\/u><\/strong>: totemism as the origin of ritual and religion in Australia.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Freud<\/u> :<\/strong> in his \u201c<strong>Moses &amp; Monotheism<\/strong>\u201d&nbsp; \u2192 Origin = Sacrifices<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Functional approach<\/u><\/strong>: (Brown and Malinowski)\n<ul>\n<li>Functions of ritual in society.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ritual is an <strong>adaptive &amp; adjustive response<\/strong> to the <strong>social &amp; physical environment.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Types of rituals<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong><u>Imitative rituals<\/u><\/strong>: It is patterned after myth. E.g. ritual of New Year (story of creation).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Positive &amp; Negative rituals<\/u><\/strong>:\n<ul>\n<li>Positive is renewing ritual and<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>negative rituals involve avoidance (taboo).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Sacrificial ritual<\/u><\/strong>: It is earliest or elementary form of religion.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Life crisis rituals<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; passage from one domain of life to other such as rituals of birth, puberty, marriage, conception and death etc. Example- Hindu ritual of twice born (sacred thread ceremony).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Relation B\/w Myth and Ritual<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Myth &amp; ritual are two central components of religious practice. They are commonly united as parts of religions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Most common approach to relation b\/w the two is <strong>myth-ritualistic theory<\/strong>:\n<ul>\n<li>According to this theory <strong>myth does not stand by itself but it is tied to ritual.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>One developed from other theory<\/strong>&#8216; is refuted.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Different views<\/u><\/strong><ol><li><strong><u>Ritual from myth : E.B. Tylor<\/u><\/strong><ul><li>Analogous to relation between science &amp; technology.<\/li><li>Ritual is application of myth.<\/li><\/ul><\/li><li><strong><u>Myth from ritual: (Primacy of ritual theory)<\/u><\/strong><ul><li><strong><u>William Robertson Smith<\/u><\/strong>: ancient religion had centrality of ritual and modern religion has centrality of doctrine.<\/li><li><strong><u>James Frazer<\/u><\/strong>: According to him myth emerges out of ritual during natural process of religious evolution. In his Golden Bough he discussed evolution of science as follows:<ul><li>Magic (Ritual based on magic) \u2192 Religion \u2192 Science<\/li><li>Acc to him myth changes but customs (rituals) remains same<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ol>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Myth &amp; Ritual as Non-Coextensive<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Walter Burkert<\/u><\/strong> : both were originally independent &amp; they come together to reinforce each other<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Bronislaw Malinowski<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; myths give sanctions to rituals but many cultural practices besides ritual have myths.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Conclusion<\/u><\/strong> : Though there is no consensus about relations b\/w myth &amp; ritual, it is well established that both reinforce each other.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Form of Religion in Tribal &amp; Peasant Societies<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Religion is oldest belief system existing in all societies. Various forms of religion exist in tribal and peasant societies such as animism, animatism, Totemism etc. However <strong>tribal religion has undergone change over the period of time due to contact with outside world<\/strong>. Moreover a single society may have <strong>more than one forms of religion<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Meaning of religion: Religion constitutes <strong>beliefs<\/strong>, <strong>rites &amp; rituals <\/strong>and <strong>supernatural<\/strong> being. In other words religion is a behavioural pattern in which there is belief in supernatural being which is considered all powerful and the supernatural being is approached by followers through a set of practices such as rites and rituals to achieve their needs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Differences in religious forms from society to society are due to differences in these three elements.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Animism<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Start with definition of religions<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Etymologically<\/u><\/strong> the word originated from Latin word \u201cAnima\u201d meaning Soul. So <strong>Animism<\/strong> is belief in soul or supernatural \/ spiritual being. It is based on doctrine that all objects have inner psychological being.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Ex. It is traditional belief pattern of<strong> African people<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In this type of religion there are different types of spirits such as spirits dwelling in rocks, mountains, rivers, rainfall etc.\n<ul>\n<li>For example in <strong>Korwa tribe<\/strong> there are <strong>two types of spirit<\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li><strong>benevolent spirit<\/strong> &#8211;&nbsp; does not harm anyone and this is seldom worshiped.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>malvolent spirit<\/strong> which is an evil spirit and worshiped a lot.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Taylor\u2019s Animism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Evolutionist<strong>E. B. Tylor<\/strong> in his book &#8216;<strong>Primitive Culture&#8217;<\/strong><strong>developed concept<\/strong> of animism &amp; refers it as minimum definition of religion.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>He defined it as \u201c<strong>belief in Anthropomorphic supernatural being<\/strong>\u201d. Thus, belief that no-human objects too have souls.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Origin of religion<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Acc to him, lies in Animism of primitive societies<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>which he explained thr <strong>Dream- Death experience<\/strong> of man i.e experiences of shadow, echo, trances, which forced \u201c<strong>primitive philosophers<\/strong>\u201d to assign <strong>self-like<\/strong> agency to other objects.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Thus primitive \uc637 must have developed belief that <strong>soul are Internal &amp; external<\/strong> &amp; began to worship entity of soul.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Type of Animism<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Lower Animism<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; soul can\u2019t be punished for it\u2019s deeds<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Higher Animism<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; even soul can be punished<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Taylor\u2019s Scheme of Religious Evolution<\/u><\/strong> &#8211;\n<ul>\n<li>Being evolutionist, Taylor saw belief in soul as most ancient belief, thus making Animism as earliest form of religion.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>He gave evolutionary sequences\n<ul>\n<li>Animism \u2192 Polytheism \u2192 Monotheism<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Critics of Taylor&#8217;s Animism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Durkheim<\/u><\/strong> rejected possibility of formation of religion on just phenomenon of illusion<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>R.Maret<\/strong>&#8211; based on his <strong>study of Malenesians<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>No such thing as soul , but there is <strong>Animatism<\/strong> which is earliest form.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Concept of \u201cprimitive philosopher\u201d is criticised as primitive man must have engaged in survival activity, not thinking about soul.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Malinowski, Brown, criticised taylor&#8217;s <strong>concept of survival\u2019<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Contribution of Animism to Anthropological Studies<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Acc to <strong><u>Mawin Harris<\/u><\/strong> \u2192&nbsp; gave concept of <strong>universal Series of man&#8217;s&nbsp; life<\/strong> which is Duality i.e. day &amp; night, soul &amp; living, hot &amp; cold<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Which latter developed in principle of Binary oppo.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Animism &amp; other social institutions<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Animism &amp; kinship<\/u><\/strong> \u2192\u00a0 Non humans participate in Kinship system &#038; ceremonies of human + have their own\n<ul>\n<li>eg-Harvey&#8217;s study on <strong>Maori Community<\/strong> \u2192 offer prayer to sweet potato before diggin&nbsp; it up as before belief to have reth with it.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Socio-political impact<\/strong> \u2192 Acc to Harvey, animism belief of personhood challenged modem rationality as it assigns \u201cIntellectual, rationality&#8217; to nonhumans also.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Animism in contemporaray society<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>with increasing complexity of religion, complexity of animism also increases Ex &#8211;\n<ul>\n<li>Buddha\u2019s consciousness in Buddhism<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Belief in spirits in Hinduism<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Korwa tribe<\/strong> believe in spirit for &#8211; crop , rainfall &#038; cattle. there are <strong>two types of spirit<\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li><strong>benevolent spirit<\/strong> &#8211;&nbsp; does not harm anyone and this is seldom worshiped.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>malvolent spirit<\/strong> which is an evil spirit and worshiped a lot.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Animatism (Manaism, Bongaism)&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>It is belief in generalized <strong>impersonal power<\/strong> over which people have some sort of control.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>R. Marret<\/u><\/strong>, in his study of <strong>Melanesian tribe,<\/strong> coined the term &amp; concept animatism in his book \u201c<strong>Threshold of Religion (1909)<\/strong>. He refers it to \u201cbelief in singe, universal transferable, supernatural power,\u201d. Anthropologist also calls it as <strong>Mana.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>The most famous example of this type of belief is <strong>Melanesian concept of Mana<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Mana<\/strong> is generalised, <strong>impersonal power<\/strong> which may manifest itself in both living and non living object as quality or attributes . The word is derived from language of <strong>Melanasia<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>There are <strong><u>two types of Mana<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>High Manna with high power<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Low mana with low power<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The performance of being depends upon <strong>amount of mana<\/strong> present in it.\n<ul>\n<li>Mana gives power, success &amp; strength<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Ex<\/strong> &#8211; it is believed that master craftsmen excells in his skills due to possession of Mana.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Marret studied Melanasian, &amp; found that tribes have belief that chief possessed large amount of Mana. But when chief dies, this mana is transferred to new chief; So, Mana is <strong>universal and transferable.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>According to marett, <strong>melanasian<\/strong> are living in condition as primitive as early man. Therefore their <strong>belief should form earliest form of Religion<\/strong>. That&#8217;s why, it is also called as <strong><u>evolutionary theory of religion<\/u><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mana is single transferrable force, hence origin of religion should be monotheistic and later it evolved to polytheistic.\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Mana \u2192Monotheism \u2192 Polytheism<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Marrett also proposed that primitive people treated objects as having life, will etc. but did not differentiate between body &#038; soul as proponded by Taylor.\n<ul>\n<li>Thus he believes Animism arose out of animatism.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Bongaism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>In <strong>Munda<\/strong>, the power is called as Bonga.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Among Bonga, cycle is a Bonga,&nbsp; the powerful steam engine is a greater Bonga &amp; airplane is greatest Bonga f<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Criticism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Assuming melanesian as primitive as early man &amp; they have not changed a bit in last 2 million yrs is impossible.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Marret \u2192early \uc637 as&nbsp; philosopher &amp; but not possible&nbsp; = engaged in survival<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>opposed by taylor: Poly \u2192&nbsp; Mono.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Belief in single, universal, SN power is one of feature of religion. Marrett is <strong>silent<\/strong> on how later features like values, rituals were added to Religion.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Fetishism<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The term <strong>fetish<\/strong> derived from word \u2018<strong><u>Feticos<\/u><\/strong>\u2019 refers to skill fully man-made <strong>object<\/strong> which believed to have supernatural powers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Fetish objects<\/strong> are believed to posses supernatural power b\/c it is occupied or possessed by supernatural beings. Ex of objects are piece of jewellery, piece of wood, stone etc.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>A fetish object may be adored or insulted depending upon whether it fulfills or doesn&#8217;t fulfill its possessor&#8217;s wishes.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Essentially <strong>Fetishism <\/strong>is an attribution of inherent value or power to an object. Or refers to worship of fetish object.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>the Term was first <strong>Portuguese<\/strong> to refer to objects used in religious cult by <strong>West Africans <\/strong>i.e popularised in Europe by <strong>Fanel Brosses <\/strong>while comparing <strong>west African<\/strong> religion to magical aspects of <strong>Ancient Egyptian religion<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Auguste Comte<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; In his theory of Evolution of religion, proposed <strong>fetishism <\/strong>as earliest stage followed by <strong>Polytheism &amp; Monotheism<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Some artifcats used in Monotheist religion (<strong>Holy cross<\/strong>, etc) are incarnation of <strong>festishism<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>According to <strong>August Comte and Brosses,<\/strong> religion originated from fetishism.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Case Study &amp; Example<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>practiced in <strong>Voodos of Togo <\/strong>where fetish objects are blood, bone, fur, claws etc.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Henry Hessler <\/strong>in his \u201c<strong>Primitive Religion in India\u201d <\/strong>referred\u00a0 to fetishism in India : <strong>Bondo <\/strong>follow it ;\u00a0 where<strong> sword is a fetish object<\/strong>. (I.e sword of superior)\n<ul>\n<li>Rajput worrier (Pathkonda Mahaprabhu) saw sister naked husking grain \u2192 felt remorse \u2192 turned into sword \ud83d\udde1<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bondo hide it in banyan tree \u2192 At <strong>Sisa Festival,<\/strong> climb tree, bring it down, worship &amp; put back<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Contribution\/ Accomplishments<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Tylor &amp; McLennan<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Fetishim shifted attention from r\/l b\/w people &amp; god to people &amp; material objects<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Fetishism is present in all religion. Sometime used in study of religion e.g in Traditional&nbsp; West African beliefs.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Criticism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Monotheists practitioners deny Auguste comet\u2019s vision<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Naturalism<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Originally, It was proposed by of <strong><u>Max Muller<\/u> &amp;&nbsp; <\/strong>supported by <strong><u>Reville<\/u><\/strong>to designate the worship of nature.&nbsp; It is <strong>worship of nature<\/strong> because of belief that supernatural power has manifestations in things of nature.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>e.g Roaring of clouds, Earthquakes &#8211; are expression of supernatural power<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In chota Nagpur \u2192 some tribals sacrifice pig on hill top during prolonged drought to please rain good \u2192 thus respects Supernatural power of nature<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Genesis of Naturalism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Keary<\/strong> : &#8211; is in childlike wonders of <strong>primitive man<\/strong>, having no idea of god, &amp; who views <strong>natural phenomena<\/strong> beyond his control and comprehension and makes the <strong>things themselves god<\/strong> by worshiping them as were conscious of his own agency, <strong>yet unable to distinguish b\/w soul &amp; body.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Naturism explains \u2192 Man originally was destitute of nature \u2192 Ignorant awe in face of natural forces \u2192 Naturalism<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This theory is sometime c\/l <strong>Personification of Natural Forces<\/strong>,\n<ul>\n<li>but scholars argue that personification, in its strict sense of attributing person\u2019s value to things, was beyond primitive man\u2019s power &amp; appears only in later form of developed belief.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Acc to this belief the roaring of clouds, lightening and earthquakes etc. are manifestations of supernatural power. E.g. when there is flood in river it causes huge damage. Hence it has to be worshiped by animal sacrifice to tame the river.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Taylor <\/strong>considered nature -worship as connecting link b\/w Fetichism &amp; Polytheism<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Totemism<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>It was first explained by <strong>Emile Durkheim<\/strong>. The word totem is derived from <strong>Ojibwae Lang <\/strong>of North American tribeword <strong>\u201cdodem\u2019 <\/strong>which is a <strong>phenomenon<\/strong> where each <strong>clan<\/strong> is associated with some animal or plant with which they have mystical relationship. It is also believed to be originated from ototem&#8217; an ojibwa word for friend, relative or kin.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Ex &#8211; E. Durkheim considered Austrelia as home of totemism<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Totem \u2192 interact with kin groups or individual &amp; serve as their emblem or symbol.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Totemism is manifested in various forms depending upon context, most often found in hunting &#8211; gathering community.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Features of totemism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Here each society is divided into several segments such as clan and each segment recognizes mystical relationship totem (certain type of animal, plant or natural phenomenon.) r\/l \u21a0&nbsp; worshiping.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>There is <strong>taboo against killing or harming<\/strong> of the totem animal as it is considered savior of the clan.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Each totemic segment is an <strong>exogamic group<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Periodic collective worship of totem animal and its ceremonial killing ; for multiplication &amp; perpetuation of species.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Totem can be of an individual or of a group.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Belief that totem <strong>souls<\/strong> are born &amp; reborn.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Group &amp; Individual Totemism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Group Totemism<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Mystical association of animal, plant or natural species with <strong>unilineally<\/strong> related groups<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Hereditary transmission of totems<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>E.g Africa, India, Oceania (especially Melanesia)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Individual Totemism<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Intimate relationship b\/w person and particular natural object<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Totem can grant special power to owner<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Simultaneous existence (hurting one result&nbsp; in hurting other) \u2192 thus strongly tabooed)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>E.g Austrelian aborigines &amp; American Indians.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Case studies<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Birhor (chota nagpur)<\/u><\/strong> \u2192 patrilimeal, exogamous totem grp.\n<ul>\n<li>belief: each totem \u2192&nbsp; fortuitous connection with birth of ancestor of clan.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>temperamental &#038; physical similarities beth clan member &#038; totem.\n<ul>\n<li>Yearly offering to chief spirit at&nbsp; ancestral hill (great fear of spirits).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>NOY-papua (Papua New Guinea)<\/u><\/strong> \u2192 patrilinned, exog totem grp.\n<ul>\n<li>associated with animals (especially fish)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>belief: they are born from totem.\n<ul>\n<li>Thus taboo<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>children given option to choose b\/w paternal or maternal totem<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Theories of Origin of Totemism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>J.F. McLennan<\/u><\/strong> &#8220;The worship of animals and plants&#8221;\n<ul>\n<li>All human race in ancient times gone thr totemic stage<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>but didn&#8217;t explained origin of totemis &#8211; but said it was originated thr combination of fetishism &amp; exogamic descent.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>E.B. Taylor<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Criticised McLennan&#8230;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>rejected confusion b\/w totemism &amp; worship of animals.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>totemism \u2192 tendency of human to classify worldly things.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>opposed it as basis of religion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>James Frazer<\/u><\/strong> \u2192\u00a0 &#8220;<strong>Totemism &amp; Exogamy&#8221; (1910)<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>first comprehensive work<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>research: Austrelia &amp; Melanesia.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>origin of totemism \u2192&nbsp; <strong>conceptionalism&nbsp; (<\/strong>interpretation of conception &amp; birth of al children).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>women impregnate due to spirit of&nbsp; animal or spiritual fruit enters her womb.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>resulted in <strong>beginning of totem clans.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Emile Durkheim<\/u> \u2192<\/strong> gave concept of totemismo : <strong>Theory of Sacralisation<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>explained totem from sociological &amp; theological of view it point<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Studied Austrelian tribe Arunta \u2192 considered them as most Primitive thus religion most primitive.\n<ul>\n<li>origin of religion : totemism \u2192 polytheism \u2192 Monotheism&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>For him, sphere of the sacred is reflection of the emotions that underline social activities thus\n<ul>\n<li>religion as social life written in symbolic language. &amp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>totem was : reflection of group (clan)&nbsp; consciousness ;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Religion \u2192 collective consciousness \u2192 manifested in individual affinity with totem, taboo, symbols , rituals&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Malinowski<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Viewed totemism from biological &amp; psychological perspective &amp; not as cultural phenomena<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Thus Totemism = desire to satisfy basic human need in natural world.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Franz Boas &amp; R.C. Brown<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>R.C Brown &#8211; study of totemism in African tribes : did not lan totem but nor respect nor fear their totem.\n<ul>\n<li>Acc to him totemism \u2192 General tendency to characterise segments of community thr connection with portion of nature.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Both were found its impossible to fit totemism into single category \u2192 thus difficult to define.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Both were unconvinced that institution of totemism was real.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Levi- strauss<\/u><\/strong> in (<strong>Totemism, 1963)<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>critique of totemistic phenomenon.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>study of structure of totemism thr illustration of abstract polarities that saw totemism as phenomenon of culture.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Binary opposition : nature &#038; cutture.\n<ul>\n<li>nature \u2192&nbsp; species of animails, plants<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Culture \u2192&nbsp; mystic identification of indi- or group with totem.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>4 kinds of relationship between N&amp;C within totemism<\/u><\/strong> each combination correspond with phenomena that are to be observed in one people or another\n<ul>\n<li>species identified with (i.w) particular group eg- <strong>Austrelian<\/strong> aborigine,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>species identified with individual. intreg- <strong>N. American<\/strong> Indians.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Particular animal\/plant i,w. individual\u00a0 Eg- <strong>Mota<\/strong> people (Melanesia)\n<ul>\n<li>child incarnation of particular animall plant mother ate at the time she was conscious of pregnancy.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>particular animal \/ plant i&#8217;w.group.\n<ul>\n<li>e.g- Polynesia &amp; Africa \u2192 group patronge.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Critics<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Russian American ethnologist <strong>Alexander Golden weiser <\/strong>&#8211; challenged idea of totemism as having common properties using his Comparative study on Austrelian Abort &amp; Brith Colombians<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Magic<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Introduction : As defined by <strong>James Frazer<\/strong> in \u201c<strong>The Golden Bough<\/strong>\u201d Magic is <strong>technique<\/strong> designed to achieve specific goals by <strong>manipulating the supernatural<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Frazer\u2019s Concept of Magic<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>emphasised that Magic is technique ( i.e aspect of technology)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This technology involves certain <strong>skills &amp; competence<\/strong> for <strong>manipulate or controlling supernatural i.e&nbsp; <\/strong>to act in certain intended way<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Magic either meant for good (Rain, Fertility, cure of illness, crops ) or Evil purpose (creation of death, illness, harm, famine)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Acc to him Magic existed earlier than religion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Malinowski\u2019s Concept of Magic<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Acc to him Magic consists of Acts or belief thr which individuals try to control nature where their technology &#038; natural techniques are insufficient.\n<ul>\n<li>e.g.- Magical practices of\u00a0 <strong>Trobriand Islanders<\/strong> &#8211; they of <strong>k\/n of env<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Adjust agri. with season<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>built canoes<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>build Yam gardens<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>but <strong>destroyed<\/strong> by storm&nbsp; &amp; heavy rain.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>believe that beyond their control &amp; their k\/n about nature is limited<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Therefore in all such helpless situations they take recourse to magical acts.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Thus, Malinowski theories \u2192&nbsp; function of&nbsp; magic = <strong>To alleviate anxiety in face of uncertainity.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Both Frazer\u2019s&nbsp; &amp; Malinowski argue that magic is <strong>Primitive science <\/strong>b\/c it come into existence when the <strong>rational techniques are insufficient to control natural phenomena.&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Elements of Magic<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Acc to By <strong>Raymond Firth (1958), <\/strong>magic involves three elements<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong><u>Practitioners<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; may be individual himself or specialist such as Shaman, magician or priest.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Practical Aim<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; wide range of objectives. Which can be classified as\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Protective &#8211; <\/strong>prevent harm to individual or cure him of illness<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Productive &#8211; <\/strong>b\/c they include the desire for a successful hunt,\u2191 crop, rain &amp; success in courtship &amp; love making<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Destructive<\/strong> &#8211; include desire to harm or destroy one\u2019s rivals or enemies.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Magical Formula<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>3 aspects of it ;\n<ul>\n<li>Things used &#8211; <strong>Instruments or medicines<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Things spoken &#8211; <strong>Spells <\/strong>(acc to Malinowski, the effective force lies in it )&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Things Done &#8211; <strong>Rites<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>parents in any magical formal ; relative importance may vary from f to f &#038; society to society.\n<ul>\n<li><em>Societies located in African continent South of the Sahara desert or which originated in Negro Africa &#8211; major imp on medicine<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Societies in Melanesia, Micronesia &amp; Polynesia place great emphasis on the spell.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Forms of Magic<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Frazer&#8217;s classification<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; on the basis of laws or principle of thoughts associated ; found MF based on two principle thoughts\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Law of similarity<\/u> &#8211; <\/strong>Like produces like or effect resemble its cause\n<ul>\n<li>Associated Magic \u2192 <strong>Homeopathic<\/strong> \/ imitative \/ mimetic Magic\n<ul>\n<li>attempt to injure or destroy person with belief that if Image suffers, man die.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>eg- <strong>oraons<\/strong> (chotanagpur)\n<ul>\n<li>belief : thunder \u2192&nbsp; direct cause of rain.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Go on hill, sacrifice pig, flinging down Stones to resemble noise of thunder.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Ho<\/strong> light fire &amp; expect that rain will come from formed cloud.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Khonds of Ganjam Hills in Orissa<\/strong> practice human sacrifice as they believed taht tears rolled down the victim\u2019s eye &amp; blood gushed forth from victim\u2019s wounds so would it rain.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Burning of effigies<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Law of Contact<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; once in contact, always in contact\n<ul>\n<li>Associated magic \u2192 Contagious magic\n<ul>\n<li>Magical sympathy believe to exist b\/w man &amp; his any served part (hair, nail)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>E.g it is reason that tribals burry person\u2019s belongings with him, don\u2019t use each other cloths.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Firth&#8217;s classification<\/u><\/strong> on basis of their aim, the ends or functions they Surve.\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Productive&nbsp; Magic &#8211; <\/strong>include the desire for a successful hunt,\u2191 crop, rain &#038; success in courtship &#038; love making\n<ul>\n<li>Hunting, fertility, rain, Security, trade, barter<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Socially approved<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Factor for organisation of economy &amp; social activity<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Productive Magic &#8211; <\/strong>prevent harm to individual or cure him of illness,\u00a0 guard Property, avert misfortune, cure sickness, safety in travel\n<ul>\n<li>Socially approved or disapproved<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Serves as form of social control<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Destructive Magic<\/strong> &#8211; to destroy, Property, death, sickness\n<ul>\n<li>Form of harmful <strong>sorcery &amp; witchcraft<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Other Classification<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; on basis to end to achieved by serval anthropologist\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Black Magic<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Use of magic, SN beings or SN power to deliberately harm or&nbsp; destroy another person, groups, community, cattle, crops, property or personal achievement is k\/n as black magic&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It is malicious &amp; anti-social &#8211; i.e destructive<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It may be homeopathic magic &amp; contagious magic.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Both Sorcery &amp; Witchcraft<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>White Magic<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Use of magic, SN beings or SN power to do good to another another person, groups, community, cattle, crops, property or personal achievement is k\/n as white magic<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Beneficial to the individual &amp; society.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It has social approval<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Include both protective magic &amp; productive magic<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Includes both homeopathic &amp; contagious magic.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Magic &amp; Religion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Religion is defined as belief in supernatural being which is approached with the help of some <strong>rites &amp; rituals<\/strong>. Whereas Magic is defined by <strong>Frazer<\/strong> as a technique designed to achieve specific goals by manipulating the supernatural.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>There are various similarties &amp; difference b\/w these two<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Similarities<\/u><\/strong> : <strong>W.J. Gudey <\/strong>in his work &#8220;Religion among primitives&#8221;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>came up with idea of \u201c<strong>Magicoreligious continuum\u201d<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Acc to him, there is Great deal of similarity &amp; very thin line of demarcation.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Concept<\/strong> : both are concerned with Non emperical aspect (ie. beyond logic &amp; experimentation) intangible &amp; Nonjusticiable things.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>R\/l to Science :<\/strong> Both are cognitive systems, systems of idea &#038; opposed to cognitive system of science at level of casuality.\n<ul>\n<li>In sci, notion of causuality objective<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In M&amp;R, notion of causality \u2192&nbsp; presumed or presupposed.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Supernatural : <\/strong>both believe in existence of supernatural power or unseen order<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Involves set of <strong>functionaries &amp; place<\/strong> such as priest, Shaman, sorcers, witch, priest etc &amp; place of performance of rites &amp; rituals<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>coexistence of M &amp; R<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>same place \/Society : <strong>Tobriand islanders<\/strong> &#8211; R&amp;M at same place at time of worship of totem.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>same person: In <strong>Dahomeans of Africa<\/strong> (studied by Herskovitz)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Function : <\/strong>arises &amp; funn in situations of emotional stress \u2192&nbsp; tool of adoption.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Technique<\/strong> both are <strong>ritualistic<\/strong>, governed by traditional order &amp; formulated procedures.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Both surronded by <strong>taboos &amp; observance<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Both are <strong>Pervasive and symbolic<\/strong>. i.e. traditional \/ordinary objects are assumed to be endowed with religious &amp; magical power.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Approach : <\/strong>Both are imbibed with mystery of the world. Religion seeks explanation in terms of spirits &amp; god &amp; magic in terms of forces.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Differences<\/u><\/strong> : Durkheim first to distinguish R&amp; M by differencing sacred &amp; profane, Later Frazer explained <strong>dichotomy<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Feature<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Religion<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Magic<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Notion of God<\/strong><\/td><td>God is viewed as supernatural power exercising control over natural and social order<\/td><td>Notion of variety of spirits is common. Hierarchy of spirits is concept in magic.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Practitioner&#8217;s attitude towards Supernatural<\/strong><\/td><td>\u2022 priest occupies lower position than god \u2022 idea of pacification of SN (beg for favour)<\/td><td>\u2022 Magician regards himself superior\u2022&nbsp;thinks that he can control SN . \u2022&nbsp;attitude coaxing &amp; forcing, pray<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Nature of goal<\/strong><\/td><td>\u2022 non-utilitarian, collective &amp; abstract\u2022 cannot be attained instantly.<\/td><td>\u2022 utilitarian, individualistic &amp; pertains to material world.\u2022 can be attained instantaneously.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Relationship&nbsp; b\/w practitioner &amp;&nbsp; follower<\/strong><\/td><td>\u2022 as priest and follower.\u2022 r\/l is enduring \u2022 social &amp; moral aspect important<\/td><td>\u2022 Professional &amp; Client \u2022&nbsp;R\/l transient i.e as purpose solved come to end \u2022&nbsp;specificity of cause \u2022&nbsp;here mostly individual Is involve exception &#8211; Tobrind I. Beanti Magic \u2192 Collective exercise<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Condition of performer<\/strong><\/td><td>\u2022priest is emotionally involved \u2022&nbsp;worships with great devotion \u2022&nbsp;leading to change in psychology of performer<\/td><td>\u2022 Instrumental behaviour \u2022 Materialistic view \u2022 Exception &#8211; Evan Pitchard\u2019s study that purpose \u2192 serious of Azande found &#8211; it purpose serious, magician \u2192 deeply involved<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Nature of rituals<\/strong><\/td><td>\u2022fixed in advance (mostly day time), public nature &amp; division of labour \u2022 Ingredients easily available \u2022 Primary of belief\u2022 Initiative values of ritual are more imp.<\/td><td>\u2022 never fixed in advance, held secretly and time &amp; place are fixed at last time by magician, no division of labour \u2022&nbsp;ingredient \u2192 not easy \u2022 Primacy of secrecy \u2022 Ritual provide instrumental values.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Significance for society<\/strong><\/td><td>\u2022&nbsp;creation of society creates social integration &amp; solidarity \u2022 religious practices are routinised &amp; institutionalised<\/td><td>\u2022 creation of section of society \u2022 produces divisive forces in societY \u2022 promotes interests of a section of society.\u2022 Difficult to routinise as death of magician being end of school of thought<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>As put in the words of <strong><u>Raymond William Firth<\/u><\/strong> argued that one can find overlapping of the religions &amp;&nbsp; magical practices. It is only after careful observation &amp; investigation one can differentiate magic from religion in primitive societies b\/c in primitive societies what is primarily classified as magic can also contain elements of religion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>However, <strong>Acc to Frazer <\/strong>Magic is everywhere uni from in its principles whereas religious diversities are more common everywhere.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Exceptional Example of Tobriand Islanders<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Every aspect of life \u2192 connected with Magic\n<ul>\n<li>King thr soccers perform magic<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>No physical punishment but threat of magic<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Believe that Magic rituals given by almighty\n<ul>\n<li>Thus, <strong>Fundamental role in social hierarchy<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Commoner \u2192 Garden (magician) \u2192 sorcer \u2192 King \ud83d\udc51<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Thus relation b\/w society &amp; Magic is comparable to relation b\/w society &amp; religion in other societies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Magic &amp; Science<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Magic<\/strong> technique designed to achieve specific goals by manipulating supernatural. Whereas <strong>Science<\/strong> Process of knowning unknown thr known. Reproducible, factudi, repetitive &amp; rational.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Similarities<\/u><\/strong>,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u24c5&nbsp; like Taylor, frazer, Malinowski delineated similarities b\/w M &amp; S<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Mechanistic procedures<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0 &#8211;\n<ul>\n<li>both depends on it.&nbsp; The<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Magician follows same type of process as scientist<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Mechanical fashion of belief assumption<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Both assume existence of non varient relationships &amp; operations on of impersonal causes in mechanistic fashion.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Frazer<\/u><\/strong>: Two are essentially same, only difference,&nbsp; Magic based on wrong assumptions regarding casual rel.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Specialist, special equipments, ingredient required by both.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>language of both \u2192&nbsp; typical one.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Both have to face failures\n<ul>\n<li>though more in magic<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>oriented towards desired end<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Reveal <strong><u>confidence of humans<\/u><\/strong> in their ability to bring about results.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Differences<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Features<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Science<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Magic<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Deals with<\/strong><\/td><td>Natural world<\/td><td>Supernatural world<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Based on type of assumption<\/strong><\/td><td>On true &amp; logical assumptions<\/td><td>wrong assumptions regarding casual relations. <strong>Frazer <\/strong>c\/l it <strong>Pseudo Sister <\/strong>of science \u2192 if becomes logical &amp; true \u2192 science<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Attitude<\/strong><\/td><td>of science \u2192 matter of fact<\/td><td>Of magic is element of amazement, expectation, uncertainty etc<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Causes<\/strong><\/td><td>Assumes only natural casuals \u2192 arrives at result after observation, experiment &amp; Verification<\/td><td>Assumes occult causes &amp; works it atm of uncertainty , excludes verification<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Failure<\/strong><\/td><td>of science due to inadequate k\/n &amp; can be corrected by further research<\/td><td>of magic \u2192 due to some error in rituals performance or due to counter magic<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Application of laws<\/strong><\/td><td>Laws are applied logically<\/td><td>laws given +ve result in science are applied illogically in magic<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Thus, Magic &amp; science Though have similarities in some aspect; they are widely different regarding their assumptions, laws &amp; attitude.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Religion &amp; Science<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Religion constitutes beliefs, rites &amp; rituals and supernatural being. In other words religion is a behavioural pattern in which there is belief in supernatural being which is considered all powerful and the supernatural being is approached by the followers through a set of practices such as rites and rituals to achieve their needs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Science is careful study of the structure and behaviour of the physical world, especially by watching, measuring, and doing experiments, and the development of theories to describe the results of these activities.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Difference<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Tylor, Frazer, Malinowski gave the differences between Religion and Science. They are enumerated below.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Features<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Religion<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Science<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Openness to Change<\/strong><\/td><td>closed system of thoughts &amp; beliefs<\/td><td>open system thoughts &amp; beliefs.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Sacredness&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td>beliefs are sacred<\/td><td>is secular and there is no any sacredness.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Questioning<\/strong><\/td><td>Not to be questioned<\/td><td>Not considered absolutely valid &#8211; open<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Empirical testing<\/strong><\/td><td>not open for it<\/td><td>open to empirical testing.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Groups<\/strong><\/td><td>Religion is collective<\/td><td>individualistic<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Emotionality<\/strong><\/td><td>Religion is more emotional.<\/td><td>less emotional or even emotionless.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Society<\/strong><\/td><td>Religion is mostly benevolent and social welfare oriented.<\/td><td>can be malevolent or benevolent.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Ultimate or Mean<\/strong><\/td><td>Religion is an end in itself.<\/td><td>is goal oriented.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Religious Functionaries<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Religion is defined as belief in supernatural being which is approached with the help of some <strong>rites &amp; rituals<\/strong>. Whereas Magic is defined by <strong>Frazer<\/strong> as a technique designed to achieve specific goals by manipulating the supernatural.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Both religion &amp; Magic consists of &#8211; Belief, supernatural being, rites &amp; rituals<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>But <strong>supernatural<\/strong> is approached in specific manner<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>in some societies ordinary persons are able to deal directly but otherwise<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>which is not possible for common man, so needs specialist, either part timer or ful timer<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The religious (magico-religious) functionaries are intermediaries b\/w men &amp; supernatural beings. These specialists perform certain tasks for both men &amp; supernatural being (communicate &amp; interpret the wise of men &amp; SN respectively to other). They employ diff function to perform these functions<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Divination &#8211; to foretell further events<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ceremonies, rituals &amp; offering &#8211; to please SN Beings<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Prayer &#8211; to cajole gods &amp; spirits<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Magic &#8211; practiced to manipulate &amp; coerce them<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Significance<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>b\/c function imp to both being &amp; SN being \u2192 these are imp member of local group<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In small political communities \u2192 even headmen<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In large political communities \u2192may exercise mere&nbsp; influence than the political leader<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Research reveals four types of religious practitioners : <strong>Shamans, Priests, Sorcerers &amp; Witches<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Shaman<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Acc to <strong><u>Mircea Eliade<\/u><\/strong> , the word Sharman is from the nomadic herders &amp; marginal cultivators of Central Asia such as <strong>Tungus of Siberia. Shaman <\/strong>is socially recognised religious practitioner having special supernatural power that are used to serve as intermediary b\/w supernatural &amp; individual. The <strong>Practice<\/strong> is called \u2018Saman\u2019&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Requirement<\/u><\/strong> to Entry in profession \u2192 Varies society to society<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>child showing extraordinary qualities \u2192 recognised culturally as shaman. Eg\n<ul>\n<li>Eskimos \u2192 Child strongly inclined towards drumming<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Angami Naga \u2192 tendency of dreaming more<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Maria Gond \u2192 Extraordinary physical behaviour, having <strong>Knot in hair<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Trained by elder shaman<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Usually part time males specialists but female are also&nbsp; found<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>If a shaman repeat let fails to effect a cure, he will probably lose his following, for he has lost the support of the spirit.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Features<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Usually Part time<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>High social status<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Often also a healer thus aka <strong>Medicine Man<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Either male or female<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Generally found In egalitarian societies &amp; don\u2019t possess regular secular power.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ecstasy i.e enters in trance or altered state of consciousness journey to other world \u2192 talks to spirits&nbsp;&nbsp; \u2192 Main feature by <strong>Mircea Eliade<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Functions of Shaman<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Shamanistic activity has important therapeutic effect on its client \u2192 relieved of illness &amp; show cathartic effect of rituals.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Discover cause of illness &amp; cures it.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Shaman serves as medicine man for all types of illnesses (natural &amp; supernatural) methodology used is going into trance. Magic is also used<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Imp <strong>integrating function<\/strong> for as society as variety of symbolic act of shamanistic performance bring together various religious benefits practices &amp; people.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Also take help in some practical matters such as getting food resources.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Also bring news from SN world, such as warning about an impeding disaster.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Example<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>In coastal communities of South America, Shaman makes an annual spiritual trip to the bottom of sea of persuade sea goddess to ensure abundance of sea resources for one more year<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Shaman is called by diff. Name<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Dusari <\/strong>inBhuia (M.P)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Sira <\/strong>inMaria Gond<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Bhopa <\/strong>inBhill<strong> etc<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Significance of Shaman<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Integrating function in Society\n<ul>\n<li>Variety of symbolic acts \u2192 beings together people<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>cures illness<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Advisor &amp; communicator with Super natural power<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Criticism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Alice Kehoe<\/u><\/strong> in her book \u201c<strong>Shaman &amp; Religion<\/strong>\u201d criticised Mircea Eliade\u2019s argument citing ritualistic practices as definitive of Shamanism&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Mihaly Hoppal<\/u><\/strong> disapprove word \u201cShamanism\u201d &amp; suggest \u201c<strong>Shamandhood<\/strong>\u201d for stressing on diversity of concept<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Piers Vitebsky<\/strong> &#8211; No unity in shaman over world<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Halkan Rydvian &#8211; <\/strong>Shamanism is \u2018Scientific illusion\u2019<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Mircea Eliade\u2019s<\/u><\/strong>work on Shamanism : \u201cShamanism : Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy\u201d \u2192 Historical study of Shamanism from diff parts of world<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Argues that pure <strong>Shanist<\/strong> occur in hunting &amp; pastoral societies (thus Siberia &amp; Central Asia)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Argues that Shamanism all over the world \u2192 must have common source of original religion of humanity in <strong>Palaeolithic<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Priest<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>A priest is Ceremonialist who operates as representative of group and under it&#8217;s approval.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Featrues<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Member of religious org<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>fulltime male specialist&nbsp; who officiate at public event<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>very high status in society,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>perform religious practices for community.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>association with king &#8211; complete legitimacy &amp; autonomy<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>certain priest may acquire status of chief<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Acquires special identity by special clothing or special hairstyle<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Thought to be in communication with superior god beyond reach of ordinary people.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>found in large societies with elaborate culture &amp; organised religious cult and Surplus food production.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>specialised training \u2192 fasting, training in rituals, bearing of dogmas of their religion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Appointment<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>succession is mostly <strong>hereditary<\/strong> &gt; sometimes political appointment.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>unlike shaman, even if rituals fails, priest retain his status as failure is explained as unworthiness of people of S.N. favor.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Functions<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>officiate at public event<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>perform religious practices for community<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>They are in collusion with Kings &amp; chiefs &amp; help them in sorting political problems.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Priest attempts to persuade SN thr Prayers, offering &amp; sacrifice<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Example<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Leopard Skin Chief among the Nuer is priest.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Witchcraft<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>There is difficulty to define witchcraft as Practice of magical <strong>skills varies culturally<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Acc to <strong>Evan Pitchards<\/strong>, witchcraft is an <strong>innate &amp; hereditary<\/strong> and often an <strong>unconscious<\/strong> capability to work evil.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In his classical work in <strong>Azande<\/strong>, he distinguished b\/w <strong><u>Witchcraft &amp; Sorcery<\/u><\/strong><strong>by their technique<\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li>defined witchcraft : innate, inherited ability to cause misfortune or death\n<ul>\n<li>for <strong>Azande<\/strong>, witch craft involved unconscious psychic power, emanating from <strong>black swelling<\/strong> near liver.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>For <strong>malevolent<\/strong> purposes<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>However, Azande referred <strong>sorcery<\/strong> as&nbsp; performance of ritual, uttering of spells<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>However this distingation not valid all over\n<ul>\n<li>thus many \u24c5&nbsp; uses words &#8220;<strong><u>witch<\/u><\/strong>\u201d and <strong><u>witchcraft for distinction<\/u><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Features of witches<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>incorporate <strong>non human<\/strong> powers \u2192 work with animals like shake, owl, cats.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>bear <strong>physical stigma<\/strong>-like redeye, Devil&#8217;s mark.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>socially important<\/strong> &#8211; at time of crisis.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>harm <strong>own kins<\/strong> rather than strangers.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>motivated by <strong>envy &amp; malice<\/strong> rather than material gain.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>unsocial behaviour.\n<ul>\n<li>commit incest<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cannibalism<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>naked<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Work at night<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>almost always immoral<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In contrast to Shaman, both sorcerers &amp; witches has low social &amp; economic status in their society.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Study on witchcraft<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Evan Pitchard (1937)<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>shows how <strong>witchcraft<\/strong> formed an \u201cideational system\u201d among Azande.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Argues that theory of witchcraft did not exclude empirical knowledge of cause-effect.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>example \u2192 Granary collapse \u2192 injured many\n<ul>\n<li>People know b\/c of termites eat support<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>but go to<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Witch to know why that indi.coere sitting at time particular moment under Gremary<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Kluckhohn (1944)<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>in his study of <strong>Navaho<\/strong> Propose <strong>psychological theory of witchcraft<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Witchcraft among Navaho seves as channel for projecting emotions of guilt, desire &amp; aggression<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>under stress \u2192&nbsp; witches as target<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>thus accusation of witches = gives opportunity to Navaho to express hostility, feelings against them whom they otherwise had not expressed.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Sociological theories of Conflict<\/u><\/strong> \u2192 inspired analysis W of in 1960s\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Marwick (1965)<\/u><\/strong>\u2192 witchcraft accusation are manifestation of problematic social relations<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>ex &#8211; among <strong>chewa of zambia<\/strong> accusatich occur when <strong><u>matrilineage<\/u><\/strong> grow begond size that it can accomodate thus gives chance to break off ties.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Steadman (1985)<\/u><\/strong>&#8211;\n<ul>\n<li>study among Hewa of PNG \u2192&nbsp; killing of witches due to contict for resources b\/w diff. parties<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>thus way to threaten other parties.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Witchcraft in Modern times<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>not disappeared in modem world.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>Contemporary <strong>mediterrean<\/strong> societies \u2192 concept of \u201c<strong>evil eye\u201d \ud83e\uddff<\/strong> certain persons bringing bad fortune.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Portugal<\/strong> \u2192 mother fix amulets ground garments of babies to ward of evil.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>France<\/strong> &#8211; witchcraft is invoked to present misfortunes like alcoholism, impotence<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>USA<\/strong>&#8211; Wicca tradition, Neo-paganism<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>How can society deal with witches in its midst<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong>witch detection<\/strong>: divination<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>combat against witches<\/strong>: counter-witches in&nbsp;Africa: category of \u201cwitch doctor\u201d introduced by&nbsp;British anthropologists<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>remedies<\/strong> against the effects of witchcraft <strong>through&nbsp;counter-magic<\/strong>; expulsion of witch;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Europe, &#8220;final solution&#8221; = <strong>witch hunting<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Cases of witch hunting- medieval europe, India- Assam, Jharkhand, Odisha<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Cases of witch hunting<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; medieval europe, India- Assam, Jharkhand, Odisha<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Conclusion<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; Assam Witch Hunting Act in 2018<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Sorcery<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Acc to <strong><u>Evan Pitenara<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Sorcery is magic intended to case harm. It is Pragmatic, Conscious practice, involving act of magic performance and depending on personal acquired power of practitioner.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Ex. according to Evan Piternar by&nbsp; Uttering od spells, manipulation of herbs, rituals<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Must leam text, practice, rituals \u2192&nbsp; such knowledge is <strong>esoteric<\/strong> (to be understood by small people only) and not normally available to anyone.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>work on behalf of client<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Features of Sorcerer<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Male or female<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Acquired powers<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ambivalent use<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>For being sorcer, one must have suffered &amp; survived critical illness in past \u2192 shows his power<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>While witchcraft commoners, Sorcery \u2192 <strong>Nobility<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Studies on Sorcery<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Bruce Kapferer<\/u><\/strong> in his \u201c<strong>The feast of sorcerer<\/strong> : <strong>Practices of consciousness and Power \u201c (1997)<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>studied sorcery among <strong><u>Sinhalesese Buddhist<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Pointed out how sorcery is intervined with other social aspects.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Evan pitchard<\/u><\/strong> \u2192 <strong>Azande<\/strong> distincted b\/w w &#038;\n<ul>\n<li>called sorcery as &#8216;magic intended to cause harm\u201d<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Give Logical explanation for misfortunes<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Rea fortune<\/u><\/strong> in his \u201c<strong>sorcerers of Doby&#8217; (1952)<\/strong>on study of Dobu of W. Pacific.\n<ul>\n<li>There witchcraft Is Proregative of \u2640&amp; sorcerer if prerogative of \u2642<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In witchcraft &#8211; does all working in <strong>spirit form<\/strong> when her body sleeps where as , Sorcerer use spells on personal leaving of victim to cause harm<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Thus \u2642 &amp; \u2640 fear each other &amp; see with suspicion.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Malinowski<\/u><\/strong> in trabrianders,\n<ul>\n<li>shown that sorcery&nbsp; is not always harmfull.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>for tribrianders sorcery &#8211; both criminal practice &amp; form of punishment<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Thus sorcery both as deviance &amp; way to control deviance.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>later pointed out by <strong>Mcpherson<\/strong> in study of <strong>kabaha of PNG.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Kluckhohn<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; Navaho- channel to project fear and emotion<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Marwick<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; Chew of Zambia- breaking off redundant relations&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Sorcery example<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Lattas (1993) \u2192 found that in PNG the Sorcery found <strong>political context<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>incorporated in european symbols, offices, &amp; commodities<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>People learned &amp; practice sorcery skills on plantations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong><u>Difference b\/w Witchcraft &amp; Sorcery<\/u><\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>The most commonly accepted definition was provided in Evans-Pritchard 1937, a detailed, empathetic study of the <strong>Azande (Witchcraft Oracles and Magic among the Azande)<\/strong> in which the author distinguishes b\/t witchcraft &amp; sorcery by their technique.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Stephen 1987<\/strong> suggests that <strong><u>Melanesian societies<\/u><\/strong> construct an <strong>alternative contrast.&nbsp;<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>The author describes <strong>sorcerers as dominant persons<\/strong> who deliberately use rituals to impose their will and mediate cosmic power both for constructive and destructive purposes. <strong>Political leaders often possess a monopoly of sorcery skills.&nbsp;<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>By contrast, Stephen characterizes witches as <strong>socially unimportant persons<\/strong> who harbor totally destructive powers and carry blame for misfortune and death. Their powers cannot be controlled. They are accused, denounced, and punished.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>British anthropologists<\/strong> in Africa- source of term \u201c<strong>witch doctors<\/strong>\u201d : separate social group who repair witches\u2019 damage<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Repo Fortune <\/u><\/strong>in his \u201c<strong>Socerers of Dohu<\/strong>\u201d also talk about sorcery<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Feature<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Witchcraft<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Sorcery<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Definition<\/strong><\/td><td>EP : Innate inherent ability to cause misfortune or death<\/td><td>EP : Conscious use of magic to cause harm<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Motive<\/strong><\/td><td>\u2022 Mostly ill motives \u2022&nbsp;later, <strong>Kroeber<\/strong> point point out that can be for good motive<\/td><td>Bad motives<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Gender<\/strong><\/td><td>Generally Woman<\/td><td>Generally&nbsp; man<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Ability<\/strong><\/td><td>Person should have inherent mystical powers<\/td><td>person should learn to perform rituals<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Form of practice<\/strong><\/td><td>\u2022 Covens (Group of witches) \u2022&nbsp;Individual<\/td><td>\u2022 Group \u2022 Individual<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Ritual &amp; Spells<\/strong><\/td><td>Both follows<\/td><td>both follows<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Need of Training<\/strong><\/td><td>No need as it is hereditary psychological power<\/td><td>need as it it ritualistic &amp; acquired power<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Requirement<\/strong><\/td><td>witch poses some physical stigma<\/td><td>Sorcery must have survived some life threatening disease.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Witch Hunting<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Suspected sorcerers &amp; witches are usually feared b\/c they are thought to know how to invoke the supernatural to cause illness, injury and death.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>B\/c sorcerers use material for their magic, <strong>evidence of sorcery<\/strong> can be found and suspected sorcerers are <strong>often killed<\/strong> for their malevolent magical activities.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>B\/c witchcraft is supposedly accomplished by thought and emotion alone, it may be <strong>harder to prove that someone is a witch<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The difficulty in proving witchcraft, however, has not prevented people from accusing and killing others being witches &#8211; a common phenomenon is <strong>Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In this context, it is necessary to distinguish between magic, witchcraft and sorcery<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Mission Birubala<\/u><\/strong> :<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Ms. <strong>Birubala Rabha<\/strong> has been campaigning against witch &#8211; hunting since 1996.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Project Prahari, 2001<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>by <strong>DGP Kuladhar Saikia<\/strong>was aimed at fighting witch-hunting by uplifting the socio-economical status of the people.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The programme blended normal policing with social campaigns to check the menace.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The&nbsp;&nbsp;model has resulted in the formation of a coalition of different stakeholders in&nbsp;&nbsp;like women\u2019s groups, student bodies, science clubs and development and law enforcement agencies.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Under Prahari, regular health camps are organised. Through qualified experts, villagers&nbsp;&nbsp;knowledge about health and hygiene and local women are being trained.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Conclusion<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; Assam Witch Hunting (Prohibition, Prevention &amp; Protection) Act in 2018 &#8211; makes every offence under Act cognizable, Non-bailable &amp; Non compoundable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Taboo in Anthropology<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Origin of the word Taboo: The word taboo is derived from oceanic word &#8220;Tabu\u201d or \u201cTapu\u2019 meaning prohibition.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Definition<\/u><\/strong>: These are certain specific types of prohibitions violation of which is believed automatically or by supernatural means to produce undesirable consequences like illness, death, drought &amp; disaster, economic failure etc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Demographic spread<\/u><\/strong>:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Prior to 1886 taboo was considered to be a practice restricted to Polynesia only.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Frazer<\/strong> pointed out that such system of superstitions is prevalent all over the world under different names.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Characteristics<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Taboo as ritual prohibition<\/strong>: Negative compulsions of culture.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Taboo as part of belief system<\/strong>: Due to association of the fear of supernatural.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Taboo as a tool of social control<\/strong>: Acts prohibited by taboo are anti-social such as theft, adultery, homicide etc. Belief in taboo discourages these acts. Thus it acts as mechanism for social control &amp; reinforces social values.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Radcliffe Brown <\/strong>studied ritual status and ritual values in connection with taboo. Ritual don&#8217;ts are taboo and infarction of ritual don&#8217;ts is undesirable.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Types of Taboo<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Food Taboo &#8211; totemic beliefs.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sex taboo &#8211; incest taboo, lactation period, magic and religious performance.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ritual taboo &#8211; Toda dairies.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Protective taboo &#8211; Chiefs, Kings, new born, dead body.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Desacralization<\/u><\/strong>: It is the process\/rites done for relief from taboo. Rites of purification are performed to depollute the person who breached the taboo. After desacralization the person becomes Nao from Tabu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Conclusion<\/u><\/strong> : Taboo is widely spread among primitive societies observed by all members without exception. It acts as very important means of social control. However various different types of taboos in different societies does not warrant one single explanation for the phenomenon.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Religion is Cultural Institution. Justify<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>France Sociologist, <strong><u>Emile<\/u><\/strong><strong><u>Durkheim<\/u><\/strong> in his <strong>\u201cElementary form of religious life\u201d <\/strong>defined religion as &#8211; \u201cA unified system of beliefs &amp; practices relative to sacred things, things which are set apart &amp; forbidden, belief &amp; practices which unite into one single <strong>moral community<\/strong> called church, all those who adhere to them.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>From above definition, it is clear that Durkheim sees Religion in <strong>social context<\/strong> i.e the way <strong><u>society orders it&#8217;s life<\/u><\/strong>. Thus Durkheim believes that all objects in Religion symbolises social relationships and lead to continuity in social group. Thus making Religion a cultural institution. Though it people seek the justification of existing social order.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Social Role of Religion<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Though highly personal, but Religion does play following social roles:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong><u>Explains individual sufferings<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; As proposed by Malinowski, purpose of Religion is to purge human mind out of state of stress &amp; strain.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Source of social cohesion<\/u><\/strong>&#8211; Maintenance of\u00a0 social order &#038; social integration\n<ul>\n<li>Believing Religion to be Ultimate source of social cohesion, <strong>Raymond Firth<\/strong> proposes that it is impossible for human society to exist without some kind of <strong>religious solution<\/strong> that go <strong>beyond empirical evidences<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>on the same line, <strong>Radcliffe Brown<\/strong> explains function of Religion in two ways:\n<ul>\n<li>creating feeling of dependence on human mind.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>thereby attaining <strong>concurrence<\/strong> of individual on social norms.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>All this with ultimate aim of social Continuity and social survival.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Agency of social control<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Religion emphasises on consequences resulting from behaviour. It approves and disapproves certain human practices thr concept of reward &#038; punishment and responsible for directing discipline and dictating human behaviour.\n<ul>\n<li>It provides model for living<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Durkheim: creation of &#8220;intense feeling&#8221;.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Controls Economic life<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Max weber studied economic role of Religion. He propounded that capitalism grew in protestant nations like USA not in Catholic nations like Italy.\n<ul>\n<li>Also, due to spiritualism, materialism could not grow in India.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Religion and social welfare<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; growth of art &amp; culture, spread of education. Religious scriptures as store houses of knowledge<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Inextricability religion &amp; society<\/u> &#8211; <\/strong>Durkheim: Religious Sacred is not only social, but it is very form in which Society represent itself to it&#8217;s members.\n<ul>\n<li>Religious ideas are expressed thr social institutions, values, customs, lifestyle etc<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>These things are also legitimised thr religion<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Change in religion leads to social change &amp; vice verse.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Criticism<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Talcott Parsons<\/strong>, an American Sociologist, argues that religion no longer functions to promote social integration as Durkheim Proposed, b\/c of individualist nature of Contemperory societies.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Conclusion<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Thus, due to variety of social functions performed by it, the Religion, as Durkheim proposed, is result of social Consciousness and thus a cultural institution.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Functions of Religion &amp; Magic in Primitive Societies<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Brown<\/strong> advocates that magic &amp; religion do have <strong>complementary co-existence in primitive society<\/strong> and they have multiple functions attributed to them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Both perform various psychological, emotional , cultural &amp; social functions. It can be understood in relation to fertility of soil, birth and death, harvest, diseases and sickness. Religion &amp; Magic is foundation of primitive society and has multi-functional role to play.&nbsp; Some are following<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Inextricability religion &amp; society<\/u> &#8211; <\/strong>Durkheim: Religious Sacred is not only social, but it is very form in which Society represent itself to it&#8217;s members.\n<ul>\n<li>Religious ideas are expressed thr social institutions, values, customs, lifestyle etc<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>These things are also legitimised thr religion<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Change in religion leads to social change &amp; vice verse.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Psychological function<\/u><\/strong>: Religion primarily teaches people&#8217;s how to address the uncontrollable situation in a controlled manner, how to reduce apprehensions, tensions and anxiety from man&#8217;s mind and for that religion and magic go hand in hand.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Maintenance of social order and social integration<\/u><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Religion takes out contradictions from day to day life of man.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Emotional Integration<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp; &#8211; It provides man a sense of promise, a logical understanding for his survival and ante continuity<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Eliminates tension and anxiety<\/u><\/strong> from man&#8217;s mind to let him function effectively.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Social Control<\/u><\/strong> : Religion is a form of social necessity as it explains what are the prescriptions and how they are distinguished from prohibition.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It defines <strong>ethics and morality<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Primitive societies <strong>perform various rites and rituals<\/strong> such as initiation right, territorial right, rights pertaining to marriage, birth and funeral are intended to please spirits of various orders.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Both religion and magic address to <strong>emotional state of man&#8217;s mind.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Observation &amp; Studies<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>To find people\u2019s Attitude towards religion study By Wilson in Early 1980s<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>In USA 90-95% believe in God &amp; in U.K 85-90%<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This explanation follows that even in most advanced countries like UK &amp; USA, people still believe in religion b\/c it explains some questions which are beyond explanation of science<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Raymond Firth in his study of Tikopia<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; advocates that how fear of mystical power compels people to admit their guilt &amp; fear of god make people offer periodic offerings &amp; how the problem like fertility of soil, warfare, internal conflict are analysed in terms of spirits of different order.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Brown<\/u><\/strong> advocates that magic &#038; religion do have <strong>complementary co-existence in primitive society<\/strong> and they have multiple functions attributed to them.\n<ul>\n<li>Citing the ex of <strong>Andamanese<\/strong>, he explains how storm gives a spontaneous reaction in the minds of people and for that they appeal to the spirit of the sea first (religion). When they fail at this front (religion), they consider storm as the handiworks of evil spirits and they carry burning sticks (magical object) to get rid of the evil spirit.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Conclusion<\/u><\/strong> : In conclusion, it can be said that both religion and magic are tools of adaptation to uncertainty and risks of life. R. Brown has advocated that &#8220;People can live without a state but they can&#8217;t live without magico-religious forces.&#8221;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Religion is one of the oldest behavioural pattern. 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