{"id":668,"date":"2025-09-28T02:59:25","date_gmt":"2025-09-28T02:59:25","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.observingthemortals.com\/?page_id=668"},"modified":"2025-09-28T02:59:28","modified_gmt":"2025-09-28T02:59:28","slug":"1-5-characteristics-of-primates","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.observingthemortals.com\/index.php\/1-5-characteristics-of-primates\/","title":{"rendered":"1.5: Characteristics of Primates"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Role of Primatology in Anthropological Studies&nbsp;<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Introduction<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; it has been questioned about its presence in Anthropology. Has been the black sheep of the family of anthropological studies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>likely reason for question &#8211; stems from its historical association with <strong>sociobiology<\/strong> during 1980s &amp; 1990s.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Primatology<\/u><\/strong> &#8211;&nbsp; Primatology is the scientific study of behaviour, biology, evolution &amp; taxonomy&nbsp; of (non-human) primates especially other than human (Homo Sapiens)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Primates includes dozen of animals such as gibbons, baboons, apes, monkeys, bonobos &amp; many more.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Primatologist often conduct filed research &#8211; studying primates in their natural habitat o laboratory analysis.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Why it is in Anthropology <\/u><\/strong>&#8211; As anthropology is a <strong>holistic study of man<\/strong> &amp; man is a <strong>member of order primates<\/strong>, study of primatology is very much essential in anthropology. As these are out close relatives, Primatologist believe that by studying primates we can come closer to understanding <strong><u>human evolution &amp;&nbsp; behaviour.<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Role of Primatology in Anthropology<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>To understand biological relationship b\/w living &amp; ancestral primates<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Study of <strong>primate behaviour<\/strong> to understand human behaviour more clearly.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Anthropology is based on <strong>holistic comparitive approach<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>a comparative approach in primatology can move beyong a reductionist view of speices behaviour by identifying variations of behavior b\/w populations within a species.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Since primates are our closest non human relatives, their morphology &amp; biology is highly relevant to <strong>study of human evolution.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Study of primate social intelligence, individual decision making &amp; behavioural strategies <strong>to better understand human social &amp; cognitive abilities.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>As Anthropology stresses the significance of cultural adaptation &amp; social flexibility, the study of primate flexibility &amp; social commplexity can help anthropology <strong>understand human cultural \/ social evolution clearly.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Comparative morphological study of man &amp; non human primates complemented by biochemical analysis provided major clones to human bipedalism, dextrin hands, bulbous head &amp; jaw.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Wide range of adaptation of non-human primates helps in understanding human erect posture &amp; bipedalism<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Free ranging primates exhibit true of physical &amp; behavioural adaptaions which resemble that of human Pleistocene predecessors.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Laboratory &amp; field observations show similarities b\/w <strong>cognitive abilities of great apes &amp; Pleistocene predecessors.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Some Case Studies from Primatology<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Jane Goodall<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; notable primatologist &#038; Anthropologist &#8211; study of social life of chimpanzees in Tanzania.\n<ul>\n<li>Demonstrated complex social life of chimpanzees, citing their emotional depth, social hierarchies &amp; intelligence<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Robert Sapolsky<\/u><\/strong>\u2019s book <strong>A<\/strong><strong>Primate\u2018s memoir<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Us vs they feel based on territorial division<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Evidences Chimp genocide &amp; patrolling&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Understanding of Theory of Mind (1\u00b0)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Conclusion<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; As these primates are non human closed relatives, by studying them&nbsp; we can come closer to understanding <strong><u>human evolution &amp;&nbsp; behaviour.<\/u><\/strong> A lot of research has been done, also significant one &#8211; how the understanding of primates behaviour &#8211; can help human to go beyond <strong>Us vs They discrimination<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Primates<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Primates<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; The order primate is mainly tree dwelling or arboreal. As a result they have experienced <strong>changes in almost all organ systems<\/strong> which has been <strong>modified due to arboreal life <\/strong>such as locomotary organs, nervous system, sense organs etc. All these changes are unique to them which can&#8217;t be found anywhere in the animal kingdom.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Primates belong to subclass of mammals that show the presence of placenta<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Example &amp; Distribution<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Primates includes dozen of animals such as gibbons, baboons, apes, monkeys, bonobos &amp; many more.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Tree shrews are found in India &amp; east Africa<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Lemurs of Madagascar<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Lorises of Tropical Africa &amp; Asia<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Tarsiers of East Indians<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The new world &amp; Old world monkeys, the anthropoid apes &amp; Man.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Features of Primates<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>General Mammalised Features<\/u> : <\/strong>&#8211; These features are present in all mammals<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Physiological<\/u><\/strong> &#038; Anatomical\n<ul>\n<li>Warm blooded &#8211; homeothermy<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Four chambered heart<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>presence of sweat &amp; sebaceour glands<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Differentiated teeth &#8211; 4 types<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>+nc of diaphragm which separates body cavity into anterior thorax &amp; posterior abdomen<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>+nce of external ear pinna<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Aeucleated &amp; circular RBCs<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>vivipary<\/strong>, the development of young ones take place in uterus<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Behavioural<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>A pair of <strong>pectoral mammae &amp; suckling of young<\/strong> ones with breasts<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Learn by trail &amp; error.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Social relation b\/w mother &amp; offspring<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Ancestral Features<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Are those that were posed by the ancestors common to all primates<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Pentadactlism<\/strong> &#8211; Five Fingered hand &amp; five toe foot<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Generalised <strong>Forelimb structure<\/strong> &#8211; Classical radius &amp; ulna<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Dentition <\/strong>&#8211; simple cusp pattern on the molar teeth<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Flexible generalised skeleton<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Pendulous Penis<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Derived\/ specialised Features<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; anatomical and behavioural features that have undergone change from ancestral state &amp;&nbsp; that distinguish primates from members of other mammalian orders I.e Present in primates only<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>include a lack of strong specialization in structure;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Progressive development of truneal uprightness leading to <strong>habitual bipedalism.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Ability to grasp objects<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>the <strong>hand &amp; feet are prehensile<\/strong> for arboreal life. mainly b\/c of independent mobility of digits &amp; <strong>opposability of thumbs<\/strong> &amp; <strong>large toe to varying degree (i.e great toes) <\/strong>(except in humans)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Due to grasping habit&nbsp; &#8211; <strong>flattened nails<\/strong> instead of claws on the digits;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>+nce of planter pad<\/strong> on the sole of their limb provide <strong>larger friction<\/strong> for better grasping power.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Well <strong>marked power grip &amp; precision grip<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Use of Forelimbs for exploration<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; for knowing objects, for gathering food &amp; for putting food into mouth.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Present of <strong>Simple stomach d\/t &#8211;<\/strong> <strong><u>Herbivorous &amp; Frugivores<\/u><\/strong> nature &amp; some are carnivores<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Reduced use of smell<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>As mostly arboreal &amp; sense of smell is most imp on ground. So \u2192 <strong>Decreased size of olfactory centre<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Muzles &amp; Snouts <\/strong>have also been<strong> smaller &amp; dry nose<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Development of great visual acuity<\/u><\/strong> : <strong><u>Grater decency on eye than upon nose<\/u><\/strong> ;\n<ul>\n<li><strong>acute vision with some degree of binocular vision<\/strong>; As in arboreal life precise info of direction, distance &amp; depth is crucial.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Most primate&#8217;s <strong><u>eyes are encased in bony socket<\/u><\/strong>, feature not found in any other mammalian skull<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>in primates the <strong>eyes have become larger <\/strong>&amp; orbits have become shifted from the comparatively <strong>lateral position to the front<\/strong>. consequently in anthropoida the <strong><u>optical axis<\/u><\/strong> is more or less parallel resulting in steroscopic or 3D vision.<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/76123d3b-376c-a0b3-04d3-fdb6a9e0c766\"><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Changes in the skull &amp; Brain<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>\u2191 <strong>eye -hand coordination<\/strong> &amp; <strong>manual dexterity<\/strong> has effect on brain &amp; skulls.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>High brain to body ratio<\/strong>, highly developed &amp; <strong>convoluted brain<\/strong> exciting a degree of <strong>cortical folding<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Why ?<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Primates sit on branches &amp; use forelimbs for a exploration resulting in shift of foremen magnum in downward &amp; forward direction.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The frontal, parietal &amp; occipital bones have greatly increase in size. D\/t&nbsp; selective development of different lobes of brain.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>arboreal life requires <strong>sound balance<\/strong>, for that <strong>cerebellum<\/strong> has increased greaty in size<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u2191&nbsp; in sensation &amp; intelligence \u2192 \u2191&nbsp; cerebral hemisphere &amp; associated lobes (differentiation of cerebral cortex)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Increased ability to adoption to diversified ecological conditions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Longer growth &amp; maturation period<\/u><\/strong> compare to others. Also <strong>Sexual maturity<\/strong> takes longer time to achieve<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Year Round Sexuality<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Testies descended into scortum<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>With some exception <strong>presence of two <u>pectoral located mammary glands.<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Longer gestation period (<\/strong>from 45 days in tree Shrew to 9 months in humans)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Reduction in no. of offspring at birth<\/u><\/strong> Primates don&#8217;t give birth to more than 2-3 offspring at a time. &#8211; In many cases a single offspring si born.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Post natal dependence<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; \u2191 in period of infant dependency\n<ul>\n<li>In primates, due to haemochoreal placenta &amp; long uterine developemnt, after birth they are dependent upon maternal care<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>transmission of learned behaviour <\/u><\/strong>resulted in <strong><u>social organisation<\/u><\/strong> &amp; is significant in most primates<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Marked increase in <strong>life span.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>No primate exhibits all these features, and indeed the diversity of primate forms has produced disagreement as to their proper classification.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Conclusion<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Thus primates have some unique biological function which are the result of selective pressures of arboreal life. These features are unique to primates which are not found in any group of organism in kingdom animal. Among primates man is a cultural animals which can be rooted ot human biology.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Primates Evolutionary Trends<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Introduction<\/u> &#8211; <\/strong>What makes a primate a primate ? Defining primates like other taxonomical groups on the basis of morphological or anatomical characteristics is <strong>extremely difficicult<\/strong> b\/c<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Primates lack distinguishing bodily specializations like other mammalian groups<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Primates <strong>exhibit amazing variety of forms &amp; grades<\/strong> of organization &#8211; size, Habitat, Behavior etc.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The best &amp; most useful solution to the problem of a definition was devised by one of the foremost primate anatomists, <strong><u>Sir Wilfred E. Le Gros Clark<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>he <strong>proceeds to characterize the order<\/strong> by a <strong><u>series of evolutionary trends.<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Nature of Trends<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Though there are ten trends , they are related to 3 principle areas\n<ol>\n<li>Limbs &amp; extremities (1-3)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Head &#8211; eyes, brain &amp; dentition (trends 4-8)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Life Cycle-reproduction, growth &amp; longevity (trends 9&amp;10)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>These are trends not characteristics. Hence are <strong>not uniformly<\/strong> present, but are <strong>expressed to varying degrees<\/strong> among the members of the order.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>As a rule, except for the first one, these trends are less well developed in the living prosimians &amp; in fossil forms than in the<strong> more advanced, modern Higher Primates<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>They are all <strong>interrelated &amp; adaptive to a mode of life<\/strong> which has been the outstanding factor in primate evolution &#8211; the <strong>arboreal habitat.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Other mammals have taken up arboreal life but none have done it in exactly the same way<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Many of man&#8217;s characteristics are simply refinements of a basic primate pattern that evolved millions of years ago in response to the necessities of arboreal living.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Evolutionary Trends<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>The preservation of a generalized structure of the limbs like primitive pentadactyly, &#038; the retention of certain elements of the limb skeleton ( Such as clavicle) which tend to be reduced or to disappear in some groups of mammals\n<ul>\n<li>these features contributes to the <strong>great mobility<\/strong> of the limbs needed in <strong>climbing &amp; grasping.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>An <strong>enhancement of the free mobility <\/strong>of the digits, especially the thumb &#038; big toe ( which are used for grasping purposes)\n<ul>\n<li>most advanced digits in this respect are the thumb &amp; great toe that are not only independent, but <strong>opposable<\/strong> in majority of primates.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The <strong>replacement of sharp compressed claws by flattened nails<\/strong>, associated with the development of highly <strong>sensitive tactile pads on the digits.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The progressive abbreviation of the snout or muzzle<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The elaboration &amp; perfection of the <strong><u>visual apparatus <\/u><\/strong>with the development to varying degree of binocular vision<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Reduction of the apparatus of smell<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The loss of certain elements of the primitive mammalian dentition ( 3:1:4:3), &amp; the preservation of a simple cusp pattern of the molar teeth.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Progressive expansion &amp; elaboration of the brain, affecting predominantly the cerebral cortex &amp; its dependencies.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Progressice &amp; increasingly efficient <strong>development of those gestational processes<\/strong> concerned with the nourishment of the fetus before birth<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/f92e9079-ab36-5318-613e-857247cf9c23\"><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Prolongation of postnatal life periods.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Classification of Primates &amp; Primate Taxonomy<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Outline of primate classification&nbsp; is following<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Kingdom : <strong>Animalia<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Subkingdom : <strong>Metazoa<\/strong> (Multi-cellular)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Phylum : <strong>Chordata<\/strong> (Possess Notochord)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sub Phylum : <strong>Vertebrata <\/strong>(notochord is covered by bones)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Class : <strong>Mammalia <\/strong>(Mammary Gland)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Subclass : <strong>Eutheria<\/strong> (having true placenta)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Primate Taxonomy<\/u><\/strong> (Order : Primates)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/0ff9d9e5-7772-1b19-8efc-7ca2746634c0\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/4a77447d-2006-e58d-2138-defae5087a61\" alt=\"\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Primate Adaptation : Arboreal &amp; Terrestrial<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Primate adaptions Reveals their adaptations to territorial &amp; arboreal life &amp; survival.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Forelimbs<\/u><\/strong> &#8211;\n<ul>\n<li>all primates have retained clavicle, radius &amp; ulna in lower arm &amp; <strong>pentadactlism<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This permit a grater flexibility in the shoulder, forarm &amp; hand<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Which faciltate movement thr the trees.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Flexible Skelton<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Facilitate wide <strong>range of locomotive pattens<\/strong> both on treess &amp; on ground.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Grasping by Toe<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; place an important role in arboreal <strong>insect predation<\/strong>.\n<ul>\n<li>serves to differentiate early primates from early mammals.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Grasping Thumb<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; in many primates thumb has become <strong>truly opposable<\/strong>. It is important for manipulating objects (strength to hold)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Tactile Pads<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; it confers refined <strong>sense of touch<\/strong> that helps to convey information about the environment<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Nose<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; In terrestrial mammals olfactory sense place a crucial role. But in arboreal env it <strong>doesn\u2019t give useful<\/strong> information (exact direction &amp; distance b\/w two branches) \u2192 olfactory region of brain is reduced.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Eye<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Location of Eyes<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; On the front of the face permitting 3D -Steroscopic vision \u2192 helps in rapid movement<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Bony Eye Socket<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; To protect from physical damage due to arboreal life<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Vision<\/u><\/strong> &#8211;\n<ul>\n<li>most early mammals have 2D- Black &amp; white vision with increased dependency on olfactory sense.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>3D &amp; coloured vision developed in response to selective pressure of arboreal environment where precise information of direction &amp; distance is crucial.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Vision plays key role in primate communication.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Means of Communication<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>They frequently used facial expressions, body postures as a means of communication apart from vocalisation,<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Teeth<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; primates have <strong>fewer<\/strong> teeth than ancestral mammals. Primates teeth are <strong>relatively simple<\/strong> in structure.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Placenta<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; through placenta blood vessels of foetus &amp; mother come into close contact &amp; nutrients &amp; other substances are supplied to foetus for growth &amp; development.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Longer Life Span<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; It helps primates to adoption to different environmental cycles &amp; to transfer the knowledge.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Longer gestation period &amp; decency of offspring<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; helps in proper nutrition &amp; development of offspring<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Intelligence &amp; Learning<\/u><\/strong> &#8211;\n<ul>\n<li>place a important role in their great awareness about env &amp; their abilities to manipulate their environment&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Much of primate adaptability is the result of behavioural adaptations that are learned thr large social units &amp; long childhoods<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Quadrupedalism<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; shown by monkey &#038; ape when moving on ground and on branches. It is possible due to\n<ul>\n<li>Small to moderate body size<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Prehensile big toe &amp; opposable thumb<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>These helps them to be agile on tress.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Bipedalism<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; found exclusively in humans\n<ul>\n<li>Adoption to terrestrial life due to <strong><u>drought<\/u><\/strong> in <strong>Miocene Period<\/strong> (lack of forest)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It is achieved thr several changes in the skull &amp; skeleton.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Bipedalism helped man to use\/ develop tools<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Locomotory Adapaiton<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The primates exhibits varied form of <strong><u>arboreal<\/u><\/strong> <strong><u>adaption<\/u><\/strong> &amp; locomotory variation<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Such as <strong><u>Vertical clinging, quadrupedlism &amp; brachiation<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Bipedalism<\/u><\/strong> is a <strong><u>terrestrial adaptation.<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Why study Locomotion Adaptaion<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Man&#8217;s full time, bipedal, upright locomotion is unique among the primates &amp; its <strong>origins are unclear from the fossil recors<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Further, most of the evolutionary developments<strong>can&#8217;t be fully understood by studing skeletons alone<\/strong> \u2192 so supplement by observation of living primates<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>A major contribution of studying living primates is <strong>functional anatomy<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Two functional complexes that have received maximum attention are <strong>hands &amp; feet &#8211;<\/strong> not very different as except man, every other primate uses both for locomotion.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Types of Locomotory Adaptation<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Arboreal Adaptation<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong><u>Vertical Clinging &amp; Leaping<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Found<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; among <strong>Prosimians<\/strong> i.e Tarsier, Lemurs, Galagos etc.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>What<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Leaping from one vertical support to another, using only hind limbs for propulsions . Ex\n<ul>\n<li>When animal is on <strong>rest<\/strong>, it is clinging to a branch keeping his body in vertical position.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>While moving it <strong>leaps<\/strong>( jumps) landing on a second branch vertically.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>On the ground they move by hooping.&nbsp; However vertical clinging &amp; leaping are dominant locomotions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Adaptations<\/u><\/strong> which made it successful\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>tarsal bone of the foot<\/u><\/strong>\u00a0 &#8211; extremely long in Tarsiers.\n<ul>\n<li>The tarsal bone acts as an <strong>added spring in them<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>it is very small in man is<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Long hind limbs<\/strong> give extra edge.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Brachiation<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>It is arboreal adaption ; <strong>found<\/strong> in lesser apes (only modified in orangutan)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>is a <strong>suspesory behaviour<\/strong> in which hands &amp; arms as main locomotory organs.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Primary adaptation for <strong>feeding at terminal ends of branches<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Adaptations<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Relatively <strong>light body weight<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Long arms with long fingered hands<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Long opposable thumb<\/strong> is in the way &#038; hence all <strong>brachiators<\/strong> have some means of getting their thumbs out of way during locomotion\n<ul>\n<li>Gibbon tucks away the thumb &#8211; since hands function as hooks.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It is of two subtypes<ol><li><strong><u>Primitive Brachiation<\/u><\/strong><ul><li>Progression is accompanied by swinging the body from one handhold to another : Use both hands alternatively<\/li><li>Turn 180\u00b0&nbsp;While moving through a branch.<\/li><\/ul><\/li><li><strong><u>True Brachiation<\/u><\/strong><ul><li><strong><u>found<\/u><\/strong> in lower apes i.e <strong>Gibbon &amp; Siamang<\/strong><\/li><li>In this case there is flight in air. \u2192 animal jumbs from a branch to another branch of tree.<\/li><li>In such cases both hands are used.<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ol>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Modified Brachiation<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Found<\/u><\/strong> in <strong>Orangutan<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Involves <strong>arm swinging<\/strong> with <strong>feet used for support, climbing &amp; hanging<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The orangutans are <strong>really cautious climbers<\/strong> than brachiators &amp; climb using any combination of their four grasping extremities.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Quadrupedalism<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Found<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; in <strong>monkey &amp; ape<\/strong> &#8211; on ground &amp; on branches of trees<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It involves both fore &amp; hind limbs<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Types<\/u><\/strong> &#8211;\u00a0 differ mainly in the <strong><u>degree to which climbing, leaping &amp; swinging are employed in addition<\/u><\/strong> to quadrupedal running or walking.\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Arboreal Quadrupedalism<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Adaptations<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Reduction in index finger \/ thumb<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Big toe splayed out at a wide angle &#8211; forceps to enclose a branch<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Short and broad trunks &#8211; COG<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Fore and hind limbs are of equal length<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Prehensile hands &amp; feet &#8211; to grasp branches<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>N.W.M. &#8211; Long Prehensile tails<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Subtypes<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Slow Climbing<\/u> &#8211; <\/strong>these combine slow climbing &#038; deliberate movement with a powerful gri\n<ul>\n<li>eg. Lorises, Pottos<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Branch Running &amp; Walking<\/u> &#8211; <\/strong>walking or running along the tops of branches ; climbing &#038; leaping also seen (for gaps)\n<ul>\n<li><strong>tree shrew &amp; marmosets<\/strong> (hold branch by claws), some Lemurs etc<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Old World Semi &#8211; Brachiation<\/u> &#8211; <\/strong>Arm swinging combined with climbing, quadrupedal walking &#038; leaping\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Colobus monkeys, Langurs<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>New World Semi &#8211; Brachiation<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Along with OW Characterises + also used to suspend prehensile tail.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Howler, spider, wooly &amp; wooly spider monkey \ud83d\udc12<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Terrestrial Quadrupedalism<\/u> &#8211; Apes<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Two subtypes\n<ol>\n<li><strong><u>Ground Running &amp; Walking<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Baboons &#038; patas Monkey\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Quadrupedal walking &amp; running on soles &amp; underside of fingers<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>limbs of equal length<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>all fingers of equal length &#8211; allows more precision grip<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Knuckle Walking<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Chimpanzees &#038; Gorillas\n<ul>\n<li>2\u00b0 adaptation to ground living &#8211; <strong>quadrupedal walking &amp; running on soles<\/strong> &amp; backs of <strong>curled fingers.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Adaptation<\/u><\/strong> b\/c of large body size but at the same time retaining arboreal features like long arms &#038; long fingers &#038; short thumbs like their brachiating ancestors.\n<ul>\n<li>Elongation of pelvis<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Head of femur &#8211; not forming an angle with shaft &#8211; restricts the movement of the leg<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>habitually bent knee<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>whole foot making contact with surface<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Examples<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Monkey &#8211; Arboreal &amp; terrestrial quadrupedalism<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Apes &#8211; terrestrial Quadrupedalism<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Chimpanzee do climb &amp; brachiate in trees while feeding, but return to the ground &amp; knuckle walk when traveling.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In <strong><u>Orangutan<\/u><\/strong> \ud83e\udda7 &#8211; <strong>Palm &amp; fist \ud83e\udd1b walking<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Terrestrial Adaptation<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Bipedalism<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Evolved some 4 mya due to <strong>drought in Miocene period ; <\/strong>The reasons for this adaptation are unknown &amp; speculative<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>What<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; Hind limbs alone support the body weight &amp; propel it along the groud<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Exclusively found in Human,<\/u><\/strong> in <strong>adaptation to terrestrial life<\/strong>,\n<ul>\n<li>Other primates have come to the ground but none taken to bipedalism<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>though the tendency to occasional bipedalism can be seen in other primates, the structural adaptations seen in human is extraordinary<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>The essential factors in upright posture<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>reorientation of the body with respect to gravity &amp; this necessitates many skelatal, muscular &amp; visceral changes.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Changes to support bipedalism in human anatomy<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>involved a number of structures &#8211; head, foot, pelvis, knee, leg, vertebral column, musculature etc.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Modifications for adaptation<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Flexible skeleton &#8211; give wide range of locomotive patterns both on trees &amp; grounds<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Grasping big toe &amp; opposable thumb &#8211; important for manipulating objects &amp; gives strength to hold<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Claws<\/strong> have evolved into nail in most primates<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Tactile pads<\/strong> : Fingers of primates have tactile pads. act as frction pads while walking &amp; offer refined senee of touch that help to convey info. about the env.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Nose<\/strong> ; in terrestrail mammals , olfactory sense plays a crucial role. Smell is relatively unimportant in the trees<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Eyes<\/strong> ;\n<ul>\n<li>On fron of face, they provide 3D vision (Stereoscopic)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mostly encased in bony eye sockets<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>3D vision improves accuracy during movement in trees.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>main advantages<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>it frees hand , so can be used in carring &amp; manipulating objets such as tools.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>it give rise to culture in human beings which distinguishes it from other primates.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Primate Behaviour<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Study of Social behaviour of non-human frimates gives us an idea about behaviour of our ancestral hominid before emergence of culture.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Non human primates <strong>have a wide ranging behaviour<\/strong> depending upon the composition of their social groups and on the environment in which they are inhabiting<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Social Organisation<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Except orangutan and some prosimians, most of the non-human primates live in stable group<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>The basic pattern of Social group compositions<\/strong>:\n<ul>\n<li>Single female and her offsprings group\n<ul>\n<li>found among Orangtun in this group are adult male normally lead their lives alone..<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Adult male, female and offsprings\n<ul>\n<li>It is common pattern. among gibbong, titi monkeys.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>One female, many adult male &#038; offspring\n<ul>\n<li>extreamly rare type, reported in <strong>tamarins<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>One male, Several female group.\n<ul>\n<li>Can be called as&nbsp; Polygynous grioup<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>most common in Baboons, Langurs, Gorillas \ud83e\udd8d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Distribution of food and&nbsp; the threat of predators<\/strong> influenced the extent of Society and Social interaction.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Primates confine their day to day activities to a <strong>particular area<\/strong> called <strong><u>home range<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>It is divided based on the need of the group. Ex &#8211; Dietary needs.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>most primates defend their home range when other groups of their own species entered their home range.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ex -Specialised territorial defensive behaviour&nbsp; found among <strong>Hawler monkeys &amp; gibbon.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Lemurs mark their <strong>woodland territory <\/strong>with Chemicals produced by <strong>wrist glands.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Apes Spend time for <strong>grooming, playing and even fighting<\/strong> apart from feeding and resting.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Grooming<\/u><\/strong> apart from serving as <strong><u>hygienic function<\/u><\/strong> by removing dirt &amp; Parasite, Provides <strong><u>friendly Contact and reinforces Social bonds<\/u><\/strong> among primates.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sitting close to each other, touching and mutually grooming also reduces group tensions. (allogromming)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Communication<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Apes and even monkeys are capable of <strong>Symbolic Communication <\/strong>and hence not dependent on Language.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>They Communicate through.\n<ul>\n<li>Sound (vocalization)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Visual message (facial expressions, gesture)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Olfactory Signals<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Touching &amp; grooming<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Facial expression of non-human primates <strong>convey<\/strong> to other members their <strong>psychological state<\/strong> such as fear, threats, grinting, danger, pain, hunger &amp; Courtship.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Displays like yawning, ground slaping, branch shaking, Screaming, hoops, head bobbing and bouncing also been noted in case of non-human primates.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Communication by Smell is prevalent among Prosimians <\/strong>as they have excellent <strong>olfactory Sensing ability.<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Olfactory Signals come from urine, feces, Saliva, genital and other glands.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Lemurs mark their <strong>woodland territory <\/strong>with Chemicals produced by <strong>wrist glands.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Tertiary &amp; Quaternary Fossil<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Introduction<\/u><\/strong>: The fossil remains of Tertiary Period were studied by various anthropologists and palaeontologists as it <strong>threw light on the understanding of the origin and evolution of primates.<\/strong> On the basis of these fossils, <strong>gross structure of the body of human being can be reconstructed<\/strong>, but at the same time its <strong>behavioural patterns <\/strong>can also be suggested. The fossil primates of the Tertiary period are <strong>mostly represented only by teeth and fragments of jaw<\/strong> and in some cases parts of skull.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>It is extremely important to interpret primate evolution within the context of the earth&#8217;s changing environment (changing geography &amp; climates<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><em>K-T Extinction took place around 65 mya<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Adaptive Radiation in Primates<\/u><\/strong> &#8211;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>The first radiation of the primate order has its roots in the beginning of the explosive<strong> adaptive radiation of placental mammals<\/strong> in general.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Fossil primates &amp; Tertiary Period are classified as follows.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>late Cretaceous &amp; early Paleocene Primates<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>The earlies discovered traces( Several teeth &amp; jaw) &#8211; in <strong>Dakota area of North America<\/strong> of&nbsp;<strong>Puragatorius<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>bulbous cusp pattern in molar teeth, instead of sharper cusps (which is seen in insectivores)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>indicate<\/strong> early primates were adapting to fruit &amp; leaf eating diets or perhaps a diet also including insects exploited in an erboreal niche.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>by <strong>reconstruction<\/strong> &#8211; dental formula is still of primitive mammal : <strong><u>3-1-4-3<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Paleocene Primates (Middle) (65my-53my)<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>first clearly recongizable primates begin to diversify -i.e middle of palaeocene epoch.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Geographical Distribution<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; <strong>Mountainous regions of North America(Most) &amp; France in Europe (Few)<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Most of the remains consist of <strong>teeth &amp; frgments of jaw<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>grouped into <strong><u>three families<\/u><\/strong>\n<ol>\n<li>Carpolestidae<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Phenacolemuridae<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Plesiadapidae (Best Known)<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>fossils comprise of whole fossil skull &amp; other parts of limb skeletons<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>found in <strong>Europe &amp; America<\/strong> known from the late Paleocene<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>they ranged from from that of a <strong>squirrel to domestic cat.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>on basis of the dental characters these Palaeocene fossil animals have been included under the order <strong>primate<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>show definite <strong>primate tendencies<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>dependence on vision (not completely binocular)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>flexible wrists &amp; akles (though still probably with claws<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>unusual specializations of their front teeth\n<ul>\n<li>large &amp; procumbent (angle forward)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>also show dental oddities.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>but retain numerous <strong>primitive charactersistics<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>lack of <strong>postorbital bar &#8211; (<\/strong>Pb serve to form a bony <strong>division b\/w the orbit &amp; Brain case.<\/strong>)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>they are <strong>more primitive than any living primate<\/strong> &amp; can be described as <strong><u>prosimian or even proto prosimian<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Eocene Primates (53 my- 37my)<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>primates of modern aspect<\/strong> &amp; were <strong>true primates<\/strong> , can <strong>clearly c\/a prosimians<\/strong> &amp; closely <strong>resemble the loris\/lemur &amp; tarsier <\/strong>evolutionary grade.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Geographical distribution : <strong>N. America &amp; Parts of Europe &amp; Asia.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>primate characteristics<\/u><\/strong> in <strong>anatomical<\/strong> traits\n<ul>\n<li>show <strong>complete postorbital bar,<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>large brain &amp; larger, rounder brain-cases<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>bigger eye than Palacocene time, rotated forward &amp; enlarged orbits , alllwoing <strong>operlapping filed of perception<\/strong> &amp; thus <strong>binocular vision.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>reduced snout<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>nails<\/strong> instead of claws<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>foramen magnum<\/strong> was situated toward the front of base of the skull<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>prehensility<\/strong> is suggested in limb skeleton<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>they were like lemurs in anatomical plan but don&#8217;t show the same <strong>specialization<\/strong> seen in contemporary lorises &#038; lemurs, such as\u00a0<strong>dental comb<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Projecting lower incisors &amp; canines forming a str. used for grooming &amp; hence c\/a dental comb.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Five families<\/u><\/strong>\n<ol>\n<li>Adapidae (Best Known)\n<ul>\n<li>first discovery in France in 1821 by Cuvier<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Anaptomorphidae<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Microsyopidae<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Omomyidae<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Tarsiidae<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Oligocene Primates (37-35 my)<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>very few fossil<\/strong> remains have been discovered from oligocene epoch<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Geographical distribution\n<ul>\n<li><strong>most from Africa<\/strong>, &amp; in it all from Egypt<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>none<\/strong> from Europe, speciments from America are also <strong>rare<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Egyptian Varieties include&nbsp;<strong>Parapithecus, Propliopithecus, Macropithecus, Oligopithecus, Aeolopithecus, Aegyptopithecsus etc.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Parapithecus( Apidum)<\/u>: Features<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>represented by lower jaw &amp; some teeth found<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Location : <strong>Fayuro, Southwest fo Cario in Egypt<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The owner of the jaw was very small animal attaining the size of a little squirrel monkey of today.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The shape of the jaw is more or less like that of a Tarsier.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The <strong>teeth dental fomula was 2,1,3,3<\/strong>. &#8211; reveal an extra premolar not found in contemporary&nbsp; Old world anthropoids.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>the teeth suggest a <strong>diet composed of fruits &amp; perhaps some seeds<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>limbs<\/strong> remains indicate that this creature was a small arboreal quadruped, adept at leaping &amp; springing.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Parapithecus is <strong><u>considered as an intermediate form b\/w prosimians &amp; anthropoids<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Propliopithecus<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>represented by incomplete lower jaw with its teeth but without the ascending ramii.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>location : <strong>Fayum, southwest of Cario in Egypt<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>considered to be <strong>primitive anthropoid ape <\/strong>&amp; to be closely related to the gibbon.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>the jaw was somewhat deeper, shorter &amp; more pointed than the jaw of modern gibbon. The canines were not so big. the jaw was about the size of that of a small gibbon.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Dental formula 2,1,2,3 &#8211; The reduction in the no. of the premolar suggests <strong>shortening of muzzle &amp; jaw.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Aegyptopithecus<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>most complete &amp; evolutionarily most significant fossil from the fayum<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It is <strong>largest<\/strong> of the Fayum anthropoids &amp; of size of modern howler monkey<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>it <strong>bridges<\/strong> the gap b\/t the Eocene prosimians on the hand &#038; Miocene hominoids on the other &#038; it <strong>brain(40 cc)<\/strong> is also in b\/w two.\n<ul>\n<li>visual cortex was large compared to prosimians.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>with concomitant reduction of the olfactory bulbs<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>but frontal lobes were not especially expanded.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>dental formula 2-1-2-3 (old world anthropoid pattern<\/strong>)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>skull (primitive than teeth)<\/strong> resembles the skull of monkey in some detail.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>from analysis of limb proportions &amp; muscle insertions, \u2192 short limbed, heavily muscled, slow moving,<strong>arboreal quadruped<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>anatomy -speculation about social behaviour\n<ul>\n<li>dental remains from different individuals, vary greatly in canine size\n<ul>\n<li>implies male\/female differences (sexual dimorphism)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>male may be competing for female<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>mating pattern was probably polygynous.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Miocene(22.5 -5 my) &#8211; Pliocene Primates<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>considered together, there seems continuity of certain lineage of Anthropoidea during these two epoch<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>from this period fossil remains of several Hominoid forms, besides that of Cebidae, Cercopithecidae &amp; Lorisidae have been found from different part of <strong>Asia, Europe &amp; Africa (old world 22-7 my)<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>E.L Simons &amp; David Pilbeam<\/u><\/strong> lumped the vast majority of the Miocene forms into only two genra ; one presumably quite <strong>Pongid like &amp; other hominid<\/strong> like.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>form East African Miocene deposits : Limnopithecus, Epipliopithecus &amp; Prohylobates<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Pliopithecus<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>fossil ape represented by an incomplete mandible discovered in Europe<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>it is a <strong>gibbon<\/strong> like animal in respect of ,-&nbsp; teeth, narrow snout portion, wide set eyes<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>but resembles like <strong>monkey<\/strong> in some proportions &#8211; upper limb, spinal column &amp; general body proportions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Dryopithecine<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>time period : <strong>Miocene &amp; Pliocene epochs<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>G. D: <strong><u>Europe, East Africa, Middle East, China &amp; some site of India<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>as, in most of the cases lower jaw &amp; teeth of this extinct type have been discovered.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Their <strong>phylogenetic relationships<\/strong> are determined on the <strong>basis of dental anatomy<\/strong> mostly .\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Gregory &amp; Hellman<\/u><\/strong> studies their dental characters<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>they believed that they were the common ancestory of the living anthropoid apes &amp; man.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>but some of them show such dental characters which would require a slight modification to produce human charactersitics of dentition.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Gregory, Hellman &amp; other are of opinion that Dryopithecine primates were on a distinctly <strong><u>infra-human grade of evolution.<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>can be grouped under two major headings\n<ul>\n<li><strong><u>Dryopithecinae<\/u><\/strong> (Sub-family of the pongidae) &#8211; include two groups\n<ul>\n<li>Dryopithecus<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Gigantopithecus<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Ramapithecus<\/u><\/strong> (group assigned to family Hominidae) also includes\n<ul>\n<li>Brahmapithecus<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Kenyapithecus<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Dryopithecus<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>known from some teeth &amp; jaw bone<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>from Miocene &amp; Pliocene deposits of <strong>Europe &amp; the siwalik hills of India.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Now remians from different parts of Europe, Africa &amp; Asia( India &amp; China)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>there is definite pattern, k\/n <strong>as Drytopithecus pattern(Y5)<\/strong>, in the arrangment of the <strong>cusps of the lower molar teeth<\/strong>. total <strong>5 cusps<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>2 towards tongue side &amp; 3 towards cheek side.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>these are so separate that it forms a Y<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>anthropologist are of opinion that Dryopithecus are <strong><u>most likely ancestors of the modern ponginae i.e gorialla &amp; chimpanzee<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Proconsul<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>time : Early Miocene<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>G.D : <strong>East AFrica &amp; Uganda<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>remain discovered by <strong><u>Leakey<\/u><\/strong> , show considereable variation in size &amp; features.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>3 species\n<ul>\n<li>Procosul africanus,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>P. major<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>P. nyanzae<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>it may be <strong>regarded as African variety of Dryopithecus<\/strong> b\/c close resemblance.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Simons &amp; Bilbeam <\/u><\/strong>prefer to call them by the names Dryopithecus africanus, D.major &amp; D. nyanzae respectively<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>they are <strong><u>regarded as ancestral to both the pongidae &amp; Hominoidae.<\/u><\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>D. africanus thought to be ancestory of chimpanzee<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>D. major of gorilla<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Sivapithecus<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>fossil remains of Sivapithecus from <strong><u>Tukery &amp; India-Pak<\/u><\/strong> are the most clearly derived large-bodies hominoids we have from whole Miocene<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sivapithecus has several derived features of the face, <strong>linking it evolutionarily with the Orang.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>except face &amp; jaw they are not like Orangutan.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>these <strong>differe<\/strong> morphologically from Proconsul or Dryopithecus in its <strong>dentition &amp; facial anatomy.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>they were <strong>probably fruit eater.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Researchers now simpy lumb Ramapithecus(earler thought as first hominid of middle miocene k\/n from mostly from India &amp; some bits from East Africa) with Sivapithecus.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Other example\n<ul>\n<li>Kenyapithecus (Ramapithecus of East Africa)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Gigantopithecus (Hong Kong, South China)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Oreopithecus (Tuscany, North Italy)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Separation of the Asian large bodied hominoid line<\/u><\/strong> from the African stock (leading ultimately to gorillas, chimps &amp; humans) thus occured at <strong><u>least 12 mya<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The <strong>Thickness of the enamel cap<\/strong> has played a significant role in recent interpretations of Miocene hominoid evolution.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>enamel is also seen in early hominids(4-1mya) in Proconsul &amp; Dryopithecus<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Among livign hominoids, relative to body size, humans have by far the thickest enamel caps.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Gorillas &amp; chimps have thin enamel<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Orangs descived as moderately thick<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Conclusion<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; If the Eocene was the age of prosimians &amp; the Oligocene the time of great diversity for early anthropoids, the Miocene was certainly the epoch of hominoids.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Living Major Primates<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Name &amp; Picture<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Distribution<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Features<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Behaviour<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Lemurs<\/u><\/strong><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/7779a01b-dce1-a202-450a-9ce58c4111a8\"><\/td><td>Madagascar, Africa, South &amp; East Asia &amp; South India Eg. &#8211; Aye- Aye, lemur &amp; Tree shrew<\/td><td>\u2756 Lateral eyes \u2756 forelimbs shorter than hind limbs \u2756 Duplex uterus&nbsp;<\/td><td>\u2756 Arboreal \u2756 diurnal \u2756 Live in groups<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Loris<\/u><\/strong><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/aafead24-288f-e99a-4b58-7f43d0ec03b9\"><\/td><td>Sri Lanka, Africa, South India E.g Slow Loris, Bush baby<\/td><td>\u2756 No tail, \u2756 2nd toe with claw \u2756 First premolar looks like canine<\/td><td>\u2756 Arboreal \u2756 Nocturnal \u2756 Solitary &amp; shy <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/749dcccc-f2ec-ffe9-5249-6f72da6347d3\"><em>PIc &#8211; Slow Loris<\/em><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Tarsiers<\/u><\/strong><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/4ecb5146-11ce-e72c-010e-291a1575ecb3\"><\/td><td>Philippines, Celebes E.g Tarsius<\/td><td>\u2756 Large pinna \u2756 Large eye \u2756 Elongated tarsal bone \u2192 so the <strong>name<\/strong>\u2756 Size of rat \u2756 Non prehensile tail \u2756 Eye heavier than Brain<\/td><td>\u2756 carnivores&nbsp; \u2756 solitary \u2756 Nocturnal \u2756 Arboreal \u2756 It can rotate head by 180 degree<\/td><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">All the above three belong to Prosimians sub order. They are lower primates with small body size like squirrels, mostly have tail &amp; live in small bushes.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>New World Monkey<\/u><\/strong><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/61388333-fbff-bfe0-3947-c7ac04655499\"><\/td><td>Tropical forests of central &amp; South America, Mexico E.g Cebus, spider monkey, wooly monkey<\/td><td>\u2756 Flat nose \u2756 Fave prehensile tail\u2756 Thumb is either completely absent or vestigial<\/td><td>\u2756 Usase hands for swinging on threes\u2756 tail as 5th limb&nbsp; \u2756 Arboreal \u2756 Diurnal<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Old world Monkey<\/u><\/strong><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/16acfb66-b13a-5382-0886-2a8d78ca1068\"><\/td><td>Asia, Africa &amp; absent in Europe E.g colobus, langurs, baboons, Rhesus monkey<\/td><td>\u2756 Prominent nose\u2756 Have check pouches For storing food for later mastication \u2756 Baboons sexual dimorphism<\/td><td>\u2756 arboreal \u2756 Territorial \u2756 Lives in group<\/td><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\"><strong><u>Apes<\/u><\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Gibbon<\/u><\/strong> &#8211; swift swinger <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/b3cd6970-cd17-7e1c-4aed-98c2e661c82f\"><\/td><td>Tropical rain forests of south east Asia Gorilla &#8211; largest &amp; most powerful Chimpaanzee &#8211; arms &amp; legs of same length<\/td><td>\u2756 smaller apes (&lt; 3 feets) \u2756 Arms are extremely long for swift swinging<\/td><td>\u2756 Monogamous family \u2756 Arboreal \u2756 They walk on two legs<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Oranguta<\/u><\/strong>&nbsp;&nbsp; \ud83e\udda7<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/715152c7-d95f-4ab6-f75a-56f1346bf29d\"><\/td><td>mostly in islands of Borneo &amp; Sumatra<\/td><td>\u2756 height &#8211; ~ 5 feet \u2756 Prominent beard &amp; mustaches&nbsp; \u2756 filthy cheek, reddish brown hair<\/td><td>\u2756 Arboreal \u2756 Marked sexual dimorphism \u2756 Diffused social org.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Chimpanzee<\/u><\/strong><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/c2cb36e5-c71d-eb5c-7963-d2f694913e27\"><\/td><td>tropical forest of Africa<\/td><td>\u2756 Height ~ 5 feet\u2756 Body is covered By course hair\u2756 Semi -quadrupedalism<\/td><td>\u2756 intellectual skills &amp; ability for planning \u2756 Sometimes bipedalism \u2756 Arboreal \u2756 Grooming &amp; social commutation \u2756 Organised hierarchy of dominance<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Gorilla<\/u><\/strong> \ud83e\udd8d <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/d0ca58b1-f77b-949c-d6f4-3ac3544ee028\"><\/td><td>only in Africa (equatorial region)<\/td><td>\u2756 largest of all primates \u2756 Massive skull \u2756 enormous supraorbital<\/td><td>\u2756 terrestrial \u2756 Semi &#8211; quadrupedalism \u2756 Group living \u2756 Diurnal \u2756 Dominance hierarchy \u2756 vegetarians<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong><u>Man<\/u><\/strong><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/a477c8ee-5d45-53c8-8497-96a5ec645654\"><\/td><td><\/td><td><\/td><td>\u2756 Bipedal\u2756 Omnivores \u2756 Live in group \u2756 Has culture &amp; Lang\u2756 Vertebral column \u2756 Tool making etc `<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Comparative Anatomy of Man &amp; Apes<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Both apes &amp; humans belongs to same order primates. Both belong to the saborder anthropoidea. However, they belong to different families. Following are the differences between<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Features<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Human<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Apes (\ud83e\udd8d &amp; Chimp)<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Geographical Distribution<\/td><td>All over the world<\/td><td>From above for respective species<\/td><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\"><strong>Skull<\/strong> \ud83d\udc80 &#8211; Anatomical&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Diagram<\/td><td><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/acfa79da-1952-ff63-321f-ec1ed4a797d9\"><\/td><td><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/bd5425f1-8829-7417-e66b-4b0b4752b912\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Cranial Capacity Range<\/td><td><a href=\"tel:+9113001450\">1300 &#8211; <\/a><strong><a href=\"tel:+9113001450\">1450<\/a> cc<\/strong><\/td><td>128 cc &#8211; 600 cc \u2756 Chimp &#8211; 400 cc\u2756 Gorilla &#8211; 500 cc<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Cranial vault<\/td><td>is arched &amp; dome like<\/td><td>is flattened<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Sagittal Crest (attachment for jaw muscles)<\/td><td>Not much developed &#8211; i.e segittal region is flattened<\/td><td>very well developed<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Occipital Region<\/td><td>bulging<\/td><td>Flat &amp; Receding<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Foramen Magnum<\/td><td>placed anteriorly on the base of skull &#8211; exactly in centre<\/td><td>placed posteriorly towards dorsal side<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Facial Skeleton<\/td><td>Cranial more developed than facial skeleton<\/td><td>Facial skeleton is more developed than cranial skeleton<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Types<\/td><td>is Orthognathous, Jaw are reduced&nbsp;<\/td><td>is prognathous type, lower jaw protruded<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Facial Ange<\/td><td>is 90\u00b0<\/td><td>less than 90\u00b0<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Forehead<\/td><td>well developed &#8211; vertically high &amp; whole<\/td><td>poorly developed &#8211; small &amp; receding box<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Frontal Bone&nbsp;<\/td><td>&#8211; well arched &amp; have <strong>tube tuberocities<\/strong><\/td><td>I.e not well ached &amp; tuberocities are not well marked<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Orbit<\/td><td>larger, Eyes are close together<\/td><td>smaller, eyes are placed apart<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Supraorbital Ridge<\/td><td>Reduced &amp; separated<\/td><td>Prominent &amp; like torous (fused) &#8211; massive<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Cheek bones<\/td><td>Prominent<\/td><td>Poorly developed<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Nuchal Bones<\/td><td>are reduced<\/td><td>are well developed<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Jaw Muscles, Supra Orbital Muscles, Sigittal muscles, Nuchat Musscels<\/td><td>are well developed d\/t <strong>bipedalism<\/strong><\/td><td>are well developed d\/t <strong>quadrupedalism<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Nasal Bone<\/td><td>Prominent &amp; Elongated<\/td><td>Depressed &amp; Broader<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Zygomatic Arch<\/td><td>Moderately developed<\/td><td>Well developed<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Nasal Bridge<\/td><td>well developed<\/td><td>faintly developed<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Jaw<\/td><td>Brain has developed at the expense of jaw<\/td><td>jaw developed at the expense of brain<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>size of Jaw<\/td><td>small<\/td><td>moderaly large<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Maxilla<\/td><td>Is reduced<\/td><td>is protruded<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Premaxila<\/td><td>is absent \/ Reduced<\/td><td>is present<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Mandible<\/td><td>slender &amp; light<\/td><td>large &amp; massive, protruded<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Chin<\/td><td>present<\/td><td>Absent<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Teeth<\/td><td>Smaller<\/td><td>larger<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>No of teeth<\/td><td>32<\/td><td>36<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Dental Formula is<\/td><td>2,1,2,32,1,2,3<\/td><td>2,1,3,3 2,1,3,3<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Incesrors<\/td><td>are vertical &amp; not broad<\/td><td>Are broad &amp; slant<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Canines<\/td><td>are normal<\/td><td>are longer &amp; sharper<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Canines Interlocking System<\/td><td>is absent<\/td><td>Present<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Premolars &amp; Molars : cusps<\/td><td>are blunt <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/43da9b75-59e7-e3d3-b3da-1fcf2f9cf3b4\"><\/td><td>have conical cusps <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/b76da291-9f59-7847-383d-28814d5cb509\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Dental Arch<\/td><td>Parabolic shaped <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/20d1e96c-098e-fbf9-50d1-450d3e8bd4ab\"><\/td><td>U- Shaped <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/2519b4fc-74df-4cc2-58d8-6a9a76ae538c\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Diastema<\/td><td>absent<\/td><td>present<\/td><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">Vertebral Column<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>curve<\/td><td>Pronounced <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/3d7b3a9f-449f-cb54-6fcd-b1d67ee698d4\"><\/td><td>Little <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/f1658b54-a0ec-76d6-a9c5-97e1ce701846\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>No. Of curve<\/td><td>4 curves with 32 segments<\/td><td>curves are leaking<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>lumber curve<\/td><td>pronounced<\/td><td>little<\/td><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">Neck &#8211; Anatomy<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Neck<\/td><td>Prominent<\/td><td>neck is Not properly prominent<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Neck Muscles<\/td><td>are weak due to which humans can rotate neck up to 180\u00b0<\/td><td>Well developed &amp; strong neck to proved balance to the skull<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Thorax<\/td><td>is laterally compressed into \u201cV\u201d shape<\/td><td>is cylindrical &amp; broad<\/td><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">Limbs&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Arms<\/td><td>shorter than legs i.e Hind limbs are larger &amp; also stronger d\/t terrestrialisation<\/td><td>longer than legs &amp; stronger due to arboralism<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Linea aspeara<\/td><td>Present<\/td><td>Absent<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Hand<\/td><td><\/td><td><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Fingers<\/td><td>are shorter than palm b\/c of bipedalism<\/td><td>Are longer than teh palm b\/c of amoralism<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Finger terminals<\/td><td>are round &amp; smooth <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/4e351c65-7889-f229-2b4a-d0a75a26763f\"><\/td><td>are pointed &amp; sharp <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/cc2744bb-a6ad-4fe7-71da-a030e9f62563\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Phalanges (Finger bone)<\/td><td>are straight &amp; cylindrical<\/td><td>are bend &amp; curved<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Thumb<\/td><td>is long &amp; strong<\/td><td>is short<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Angle b\/w Thumb &amp; index finger<\/td><td>Greater &#8211; very high<\/td><td>Lesser<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Thumb muscle<\/td><td>are well developed<\/td><td>are weak<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Hind Limbs<\/td><td><\/td><td><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Femur<\/td><td>is bent\/curved &amp; platymeric<\/td><td>is straight &amp; cylindrical<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Femur angel b\/w Head &amp; shift<\/td><td>is 120\u00b0<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/e2691490-3eb7-d72f-5488-9ba0fc48513b\"><\/td><td>Is very narrow in apes<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Foot<\/td><td>Biarched <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/549eed5f-5022-c930-c86c-523710c720d2\"><\/td><td>flatten <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/b8985589-64b5-0d32-eea3-d06b0d5d7354\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Heel<\/td><td>well developed<\/td><td>poorly developed<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Toes<\/td><td>are short b\/c of T &#8211;<\/td><td>Are very long b\/c of A<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Alignment of toes<\/td><td>all toes are towars the front<\/td><td>four toes are towards the front &amp; great toe is separated<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Big\/ greater Toe<\/td><td>Non &#8211; opposable &amp; very strong &amp; well developed<\/td><td>opposable, but normal life other toes<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Grasping power of Toe<\/td><td>human can\u2019t hold branch with foot<\/td><td>Apes hold branch with foot<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Ligaments<\/td><td>strong ligament are present b\/w foot bones (meta tarsal)<\/td><td>either weak or absent<\/td><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">Pelvic girdle<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Shape<\/td><td>Is short &amp; bowl like (basin like) <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/b8a0b63e-d86a-838c-c529-8a35db542556\"><\/td><td>is long &amp; elongated one <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/f013c781-64a3-026d-5a77-96a9ecd76d91\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Ilium<\/td><td>Ilium is reduced &amp; fan like in humans<\/td><td>illim is long palte like<\/td><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">Morphological<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>No. Of species<\/td><td>1<\/td><td><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Sexual Dimorphism<\/td><td>Marked<\/td><td>Lacking<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Hairs<\/td><td>Coarse hairs<\/td><td>coarse Hairs&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">Behavioural<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Locomotion<\/td><td>Terrestrial locomotion&nbsp;<\/td><td>Arborealism<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Skeletal Changes Due to Erect Posture &amp; its Implications<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The morphological alterations to the human skeleton that have occurred since the first bipedal hominid include changes in foot bone arrangement &amp; size, hip size &amp; shape, knee size, leg length &amp; vertebral column shape &amp; orientation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Quadrupedal Ape Skeletons &amp; Adaptations for Bipedalism<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>The Human Foot<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Redesignes as a <strong>platform to support entire body weight<\/strong> rather than a grasping structure<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Reduction in size of toes<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Development of <strong>two arches<\/strong> to support weight<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/4a89488f-807c-2395-ac68-428ba95e0549\"><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Axis of the human foot lies between big toe &amp; first toe<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/a599f804-7680-cf1d-c6e4-1355433b34f5\"><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Transference of weight from the heel, along the outside of the foot, across the ball of the foot, and finally through the big toe &#8211; conserves energy during locomotion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Hip<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Shorter &amp; broader than quadrupedal ancestors &#8211; to support more weight<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Pelvic region has become basin shaped to support vertical weight transference<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The alteration in shape brought the VC closer to the hip joint, providing a stable base for support of the trunk while walking upright.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Three muscles, gluteus maximus, gluteus medius &amp; gluteus minimus stabilize pelvis<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ischium, a pelvic bone, flattened allowing humans to sit comformtably<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The shape change of the hip may have led to the decrease in the degree of hip extension, an energy efficient adaptation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Kness<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Knee<strong> joints have enlarged<\/strong> to support increased body weight<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Degree of knee extension<\/strong> &#8211; angle b\/w thigh &amp; shank reduced ( hence no bend knee posture)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><u>Double Knee Action<\/u><\/strong> reduces energy during walking &#8211; when we walk, the thigh is bent inwards &amp; knees straight so that knees are almost directly under the body, rather than out to side.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">limbs<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Femur orientation<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/public.www.evernote.com\/resources\/s696\/af7fcda7-b649-65f1-baec-a877fbda1c3e\"><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>increase in leg length<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>puss in walking comes from the leg muscles acting at the ankle.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>A longer leg allow the use of the natural swing of the limb,<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Skull<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Skull balanced on vertebral column<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Foramen magnum located inferiorly, which puts weight of the head behind the spine<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Flat human face helps balancing on two occipital condyles<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Thus, without strong supraorbital ridges &amp; muscles of forehead ( occipitofrontalis), we are able to balance the head<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>We use these muscles only for facial expressions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><u>Vertebral<\/u><u> Column<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>The vertebral column of humans takes a forward bend in the lumbar ( lower ) region &amp; a backward bend in the thoracic ( upper) region.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Typical S-curve<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The curves help conserving energy while also help transferring the weight &amp; CoG directly over the feet<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Also, the degree of body erection ( the angle of body incline to a vertical line in a walking cycle) is signigicantly smaller to consrve energy<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Fusion of Sacral Vertebre<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Vertebrae from top to bottom gradually increase in size for better load bearing giving human column its characteristic cone shape<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Evolutionary Consequences of Bipedal Functional Anatomy<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Some features of humans are still poorly adapted to bipedalism leading to negative implications<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>lower back &amp; knee are susceptible to osteological malfunction<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This is because the human body weight is now supported by joints of two legs rather than four legs<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Vertebral arthritis was discovered in paleolithic hunter gatherers too &#8211; shows its not a civilization problesm<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Why Bipedalism<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Tool Use &#8211; Darwin &amp; Washburn<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Energy Efficiency &#8211; Isbell \/ Young<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Body Temp &#8211; Wheeler<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Habitat Varibility &#8211; Potts<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Reproduction &#8211; Lovejoy<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Canine Reduction &#8211; Jolly<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Role of Primatology in Anthropological Studies&nbsp; Introduction &#8211; it has been questioned about its presence&hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"om_disable_all_campaigns":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"_uf_show_specific_survey":0,"_uf_disable_surveys":false,"footnotes":""},"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v22.1 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>1.5: Characteristics of Primates - Observing The Mortals<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.observingthemortals.com\/index.php\/1-5-characteristics-of-primates\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"1.5: Characteristics of Primates - Observing The Mortals\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Role of Primatology in Anthropological Studies&nbsp; 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